An Introduction to Aramaic SOCIETY OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE Resources for Biblical Study Edited by Steven L. McKenzie Number 46 AN INTRODUCTION TO ARAMAIC Corrected Second Edition by Frederick E. Greenspahn AN INTRODUCTION TO ARAMAIC Corrected Second Edition by Frederick E. Greenspahn Society of Biblical Literature Atlanta, Georgia AN INTRODUCTION TO ARAMAIC Corrected Second Edition by Frederick E. Greenspahn Copyright © 1999, 2003, 2007 by the Society of Biblical Literature First Edition 1999 Second Edition 2003 Corrected Second Edition 2007 All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying and recording, or by means of any informa- tion storage or retrieval system, except as may be expressly permitted by the 1976 Copyright Act or in writing from the publisher. Requests for permission should be addressed in writing to the Rights and Permissions Office, Society of Biblical Literature, 825 Houston Mill Road, Atlanta, GA, 30329 USA. Funerary Inscription of Uzziah, Jerusalem, 1st Century B.c.E.-lst Century c.e. is from the Collection, The Israel Museum, Jerusalem. Photo © The Israel Museum. Used with permission. Dolerite wall relief from Sinjerli (Sam'al) showing King Barrekib on his throne with a scribe. Aramean c. 750 b.c.e. Vorderasiatisches Museum, Staatliche Museen, Berlin, Germany. Used with permission of Foto Marburg/ Art Resource, NY. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Greenspahn, Frederick E., 1946- An introduction to Aramaic / by Frederick E. Greenspahn. — 2nd. ed. p. cm. — (Resources for biblical study ; no. 46) ISBN 1-58983-059-8 1. Aramaic language. 2. Bible. O.T. — Language, style. I. Title. II. Series. PJ5211.G74 2003b 492'.29— dc21 2003001992 11 10 09 08 07 5 4 3 2 Printed in the United States of America on acid-free paper Contents Preface ix Abbreviations xiii Chapter 1 — Introduction 1 Chapter 2 — A Brief History of Aramaic 5 Chapter 3 — The Aramaic Language Matthew 27:46, Mark 15:34, Jeremiah 10:11, Ezra 4:8-11 8 Chapter 4 — Consonants Ezra 4:12-16 13 Chapter 5 — Vowels Ezra 4:17-24 19 Chapter 6 — Nouns, Definite Article Ezra 5:1-5, Mark 14:36 (Romans 8:15, Galatians 4:6) 25 Chapter 7 — Verb System Ezra 5:6-10 32 Chapter 8 — G Perfect Ezra 5:11-15 36 Chapter 9 — G Participle Ezra 5:16-6:5 42 Chapter 10 — Vocabulary Genesis 31:47, Ezra 6:6-12 47 Chapter 11 — Independent Pronouns, , rTN Ezra 6:13-18 54 vi • Contents Chapter 12 — Prepositions Ezra 7:12-26 61 Chapter 13 — Pronominal Suffixes 1 Corinthians 16:22, Daniel 2:4-13 66 Chapter 14 — Demonstrative, Relative, and Interrogative Pronouns Daniel 2:14-24 73 Chapter 15 — G Imperfect Daniel 2:25-36 78 Chapter 16 — Adjectives and Genitive Constructions ("H) Daniel 2:37-49 84 Chapter 17 — Numbers Daniel 3:1-12 89 Chapter 18 — G Imperative and Infinitive Daniel 3:13-23 95 Chapter 19 — D Conjugation Daniel 3:24-33 100 Chapter 20 — H Conjugation Daniel 4:1-9 106 Chapter 21 — Weak Verbs (Initial 3, , and N, Gutturals, Hollow Verbs, Final il and N, Geminates) Daniel 4:10-19 112 Chapter 22 — Unusual Verbs (TTin, "pn, by, pbo, bbu) Daniel 4:20-34 120 Chapter 23 — Syntax Daniel 5:1-12 123 Chapter 24 — Passive Conjugations Daniel 5:13-29 129 Chapter 25 — Reflexive Conjugations Daniel 5:30-6:10 135 Contents • vii Chapter 26 — Other Conjugations (af c el, shaf c el, itpe c el) Daniel 6:11-29 142 Chapter 27 — Daniel 7: 1-28 149 Chapter 28 — Inscriptions: Bar Rakib, Uzziah, Ein Gedi Synagogue 167 Chapter 29 — Letters: Elephantine and Bar Kochba 176 Chapter 30 — Dead Sea Scrolls: The Genesis Apocryphon 186 Chapter 31 — Midrash: Genesis Rabbah 191 Chapter 32 — Targum: Pseudo- Jonathan 197 Afterword 207 Paradigms 211 Glossary 220 Answer Key 23 1 Preface This book is intended for students who are just beginning to study Aramaic. Seldom is it the language's inherent value which attracts such individuals; more often, they are moti- vated (if not always directly) by an interest in the Bible, although some may want to explore early Judaism or Christianity as well. This fact has several fairly obvious corollaries for a book such as this. First, it means that those using it already have some familiarity with Hebrew, typically biblical Hebrew. At the same time, however, that knowledge is probably rudimentary, given the stage at which most students are encouraged, or expected, to learn Aramaic. Finally, it suggests that students are likely to proceed to other Aramaic texts or other Semitic languages, whether they realize it yet or not. In other words, although biblical Aramaic is usually introduced as an end in itself, it most often functions as a bridge between the Hebrew Bible and some other, related area. This text tries to take these facts seriously. Recognizing students' existing knowledge and motivation, it treats Aramaic as if it were a dialect of Hebrew, without trying to cover all of the language's depth and richness. This is a widespread, if seldom acknowledged, approach with a long pedigree. The fourteenth century grammarian Profiat Duran described Aramaic as "the Holy Tongue corrupted" (EDDE?]© EHpil j*l©'?).* That, however, is a patently inaccurate and very unfair way to characterize an independent language that has produced several quite separate bodies of literature, each historically and linguistically important in its own right. Our only justification for this approach is pedagogic utility. Indeed, pedagogic con- siderations have governed most of the presentation here, which has been kept as non-techni- cal as possible. Thus verb, noun, and pronoun charts include hypothetical forms (unmarked) on the premise that students will find it easier to learn patterns as a whole without trying to distinguish attested from theoretical forms or to remember where direct evidence is lacking. Where several alternative forms exist, only one is presented. The selection of these preferred forms has frequently been difficult, especially in cases of ketiv and qere, where the problem of deciding whether it is pre-Christian or masoretic Aramaic that is being taught had to be con- *Ma'aseh Efod, ed. J. Friedlander and J. Kohn (Vienna: Haltswarte, 1865) p. 40. IX x • An Introduction to Aramaic fronted. Our decisions have been somewhat eclectic. Thus the second person masculine sin- gular pronoun is presented as FUN, in conformity with the qere, rather than the presumably ear- lier ketiv ilFUJji, while proper names have been presented exactly as they occur in the standard Biblia Hebraica Stuttgartensia; thus "?K 9 .n, despite the obvious anomaly in the placement of the vowel. In order to ensure the consistency of what students encounter, the biblical text has occasionally been normalized to fit the regular patterns taught in the grammar. Students may, therefore, wish to read the original exactly as it appears in the Bible after finishing this course. Pedagogical concerns have also affected terminology. Thus the conjugations are iden- tified as G, D, and H in order to facilitate comparison among Semitic languages, which would be complicated by terms such as pe c al, pa cc el and haf c el, which are appropriate for Aramaic alone. A word about the terms "conjugation" and "tense" is also in order. The nature of the phenomena which these terms designate is enmeshed in difficult technical issues. We have chosen to use terms that are likely to be familiar from the study of other languages, letting instructors choose whether to describe the problems involved or to leave that for some later stage of study. Similarly, the periodization presented in chapter 2 is only one of several that are possible. Since any such scheme is inherently arbitrary and heuristic, a straightforward one that would facilitate clarity was selected. It should by now be obvious that this is not intended to be a reference work, although paradigms and a glossary are included at the end. There is already an abundance of advanced and technically proficient resources for those who choose to continue beyond the introducto- ry level. This book is meant to help students take advantage of those tools. It has, therefore, been constructed as a kind of workbook, organized around the Aramaic passages from the Bible. These are at first simplified and abridged, in order to keep the quantity of new vocab- ulary to within manageable proportions. Daniel 7, the last biblical passage in Aramaic, is read exactly as it occurs in the Bible (chapter 27). Each chapter introduces a grammatical feature. Vocabulary has been coordinated with the biblical passages and divided into two sections: words that are "To Be Learned" and others that are for "Reference" only. This distinction makes it possible to define all the words that appear in the selected biblical readings without requiring students to learn more than about ten at a time. Definitions of "Reference" words are repeated in any chapter in which they recur. Of course, all vocabulary words are listed in the glossary, which is not a complete lex- icon of biblical Aramaic, but contains only words actually used in the passages which appear in this book; for that reason, it also includes the handful of Hebrew terms that occur in some Preface • xi of the late texts presented in the readings. Both grammar and vocabulary are reviewed in prac- tice exercises. While there is much about this presentation of the material that may appear idiosyn- cratic, I am deeply aware of my debt to many scholars whose knowledge and experience of Aramaic far exceeds my own. Experienced teachers will likely recognize the influence of Ethelyn Simon, Irene Resnikoff, and Linda Motzkin's The First Hebrew Primer (3d edition, Oakland, CA: EKS Publishing Co, 1992), Isaac Jerusalmi's The Aramaic Sections of Ezra and Daniel (Cincinnati: Hebrew Union College- Jewish Institute of Religion, 1972), and Ehud ben Zvi, Maxine Hancock, and Richard Beinert's Readings in Biblical Hebrew, An Intermediate Textbook (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1993), a debt gratefully acknowledged. The grammar draws heavily on Franz Rosenthal's A Grammar of Biblical Aramaic (Wiesbaden: Otto Harrasowitz, 1963) and Hans Bauer and Pontus Leander's Grammatik des Biblisch- Aramdischen (Halle/Saale: Max Niemayer Verlag, 1927). Rather than supplanting these valu- able tools, this book is intended to prepare students to use them easily and profitably. Like training wheels, the surest sign of its success will be when it is no longer necessary. For stu- dents to outgrow it will, therefore, be a source of pleasure rather than evidence of its inade- quacy. Indeed, after finishing this course, students should be encouraged to acquire other tools, primarily Rosenthal's Grammar, which is in English and in print.* Several individuals contributed to this project in a variety of ways. Marvin Sweeney and David Petersen had the confidence to propose that I undertake it in the first place. Barbara Beckman helped with technical elements of preparing the manuscript, while Jeanne Abrams and Diane Rutter provided a supportive environment. Paul Kobelski and Maurya Horgan shared their skill and creativity to bring that manuscript to final form. Paul Flesher, Peter Miscall, Gary Rendsburg, and Seth Ward reviewed an earlier draft, rooting out errors and proposing improvements, while David Ackerman, Scott Althof, Susan Brayford, Gary Collier, Brandon Fredenberg, Arlene Lance, Joy Lapp, Gilberto Lozano, Aquiles Martinez, Andrew Tooze, and David Valeta shared students' perspectives. Special gratitude belongs to those who have shared their observations about earlier editions, particularly, the errors and problems they found in it. Steven E. Fassberg, Richard Hess, Joseph L. Malone, Scott Noegel, Ken Penner, Max Rogland, Antoon Schoors, Eileen Schuller, and Eibert Tigchelaar, provided *Other grammars which might be helpful are Alger F. Johns, A Short Grammar of Biblical Aramaic (Berrien Springs, MI: Andrews University Press, 1972) and Elisha Qimron, ITfcOpOn JTO""ltf (2nd ed.; Jerusalem: Mosad Bialik and Ben Gurion University, 2002). xii • An Introduction to Aramaic particular assistance in this regard. For all of these contributions I am deeply grateful. Any other corrections or suggestions readers can share with me would be very much appreciated. In the end, the decision of how to use the information they so generously shared was my own along with responsibility for the finished product, which often, but not always, followed their suggestions. I hope it will provide a straightforward introduction to a subject rarely begun in a simple way and a coherent enough presentation to kindle interest in proceeding further. Abbreviations A alef (») stem Qafel) c common (number) cstr construct D D stem (pi c el or pa cc el) f feminine G G stem (qal, pe c al) H H stem (hif c il or haf c el) imf imperfect imv imperative inf infinitive inter. interrogative intrans intransitive lit. literally m masculine obj. object p plural pass passive pf perfect ptc participle s singular s sin (EJ) stem (shafel) sf suffix t conjugation with prefixed t (as in Hebrew hitpcfel) trans transitive xm Chapter 1 Introduction What is Aramaic and why should you learn it? Although the Aramaic language is not as familiar as French or Hebrew so that its importance may not appear self-evident, it is as old as the Bible. In fact, the language's name first appears in the Bible (Ezra 4:7, Daniel 2:4, 2 Kings 18:26 = Isaiah 36:11); other ancient sources call it Chaldean or Syrian. The language is named after the ancient Arameans, among whom it originated; they lived in what is today Syria at the same time that the Israelites were establishing themselves in Canaan. Their lan- guage spread, eventually becoming the language of government and international communi- cation throughout the Near East, from about the time of the Babylonians, who destroyed the Jerusalem temple in the sixth century b.c.e., and continued to be widely used even after the coming of the Greeks until the Arab conquest in the seventh century, long after the Arameans themselves had disappeared. Strangely, the best known writings in Aramaic were produced by other peoples. According to Jewish tradition it was spoken by Adam (b. Sanhedrin 38b), and was probably the native language of Jesus, of numerous talmudic rabbis, and of the third century religious innovator Mani, the founder of what we call Manicheanism. Moreover, a formidable body of literature, including many formative texts of both Judaism and Christianity, were written in or influenced by Aramaic. Aramaic was also used by the Nabateans, an Arab desert people who flourished around the time of Jesus, the later Syrian church, and the Mandeans, a gnostic sect that originated close to two thousand years ago in what is today southern Iraq. It continues to be used as a spoken language to the present day, albeit only in small pockets of Syria, Iraq, and Iran, as well as among Jews and Christians who have migrated to Israel and the United States from these regions. Today few people study Aramaic because they are interested in the Arameans. Most are motivated by the fact that parts of the Bible are written in Aramaic, specifically major sec- tions of the books of Ezra (4:6-6:18 and 7:12-26) and Daniel (2:4-7:28), as well as one sen- tence in Jeremiah (10:11) and two words in Genesis (31:47). In order to read the entire "Hebrew" Bible in the original, then, one must know Aramaic. With only some 200 verses of the Bible in Aramaic, there would be little reason to learn the dialect for that reason alone. However, mastering this limited body of material can open the door to a wide range of possibilities. 1 2 • An Introduction to Aramaic Because Aramaic was a dominant language among the Jews of first century Palestine, a wealth of important texts are written in it. Although Jesus' teachings survive only in the Greek New Testament, the Gospels provide ample evidence of Aramaic traditions surround- ing him, and the language's influence can be felt in several other passages as well. Being familiar with Aramaic can, therefore, deepen your appreciation of the New Testament. Extensive bodies of both Jewish and Christian literature are also written in Aramaic. Among these are several of the Dead Sea Scrolls, many rabbinic texts, including parts of both talmuds and various midrashim, a substantial number of ancient Jewish Bible translations, called tar- gumim, masoretic notes to the biblical text, and legal and mystical works from as late as the eighteenth century. Within Christian tradition, important writings from the Syrian church, including the Peshitta translation of the Bible, are written in a dialect of Aramaic known as Syriac. In order to provide a taste of the riches which await those who have mastered Aramaic, a small selection from some of these has been included in the final chapters of this book. Learning Aramaic can also be a first step into the Semitic family of languages as a whole, for those who choose to explore some of its other members. Familiarity with these lan- guages can illuminate elements of biblical Hebrew by providing greater perspective than is possible from knowledge of Hebrew alone, much as we can see things better with two eyes than is possible with only one. For example, it can sensitize us to what might otherwise seem ordinary and unremarkable features of Hebrew, ranging from its system of "tenses" to the existence of internal passives and the changing function of the participle. Indeed, because they belong to the same Northwest branch of the Semitic language family, Aramaic can be a rela- tively easy second language to learn and a particularly useful way to achieve a deeper under- standing of Hebrew itself, offering insights into the nuances of individual Hebrew words and alerting us to differing styles within the Bible. It will, for example, make us aware of "Aramaisms" not only in late passages, such as the books of Esther or Chronicles where one would expect them, but also in earlier parts of the Bible, such as the song of Deborah (Judges 5). These characteristics have even led some scholars to speculate that certain books of the Bible were originally written in Aramaic and only later translated into Hebrew. The knowl- edge you are about to gain will, therefore, open the door to an entirely new world, one which is interesting and rewarding in its own right. Because most people who undertake the study of Aramaic are motivated by their inter- est in the Bible, we will presume that you already have a working knowledge of biblical Hebrew. Since Hebrew and Aramaic share many words, this is a substantial advantage, because it means that you already have an extensive Aramaic vocabulary and understand a variety of Aramaic grammatical principles without even knowing it. For example, many of the following Aramaic words are, undoubtedly, already familiar: 1. Introduction fall bsi lift up KC2J3 give ]n3 end ^10 until IV still Tli? bird e]iU eye j^ on ^ Most High Ji^I) with nv people 3I> answer 131? open 112 rise Dip buy 13p call Sip draw near Dip battle nip horn |1p wind nil height mi ask ^8© praise 132? dwell pE? send \lbvi hear VQV be low ^BEJ drink 112? consider 32)1 seal Dnn dew "?3 hand 1! know I2T day DV be able to* 1 sea W_ add ep- like, as ~3 all ^3 thus p write 313 to _t 7 heart (33 t ?) 3 1 ? wear 03^ scroll 1^33 what 13 be full 8^3 word rfp3 king l"?3 queen 13^3 from |3 count 133 (D — appoint) meal offering . . 1133 bed 33^3 prophesy S3] prophecy 18133 father 38 stone p8 brother IS after niN eat ^38 these 1*78 say 138 four ini8 in "3 between ] , 3 house JT3 build 133 bless ~[13 reveal 1^3 bear 31 judgment ri resemble 131 he 811 be Ill she 8"1 go -pn and "I time |3T see 1T1 live ITTT strength 'Tl wisdom 1331 t : t be gracious |31 magician 3311 You are also already familiar with the outline of Aramaic grammar, whether you have studied it or not. For example, Aramaic verbs are built on 3-letter roots, which can be conju- gated in several different patterns, including one in which the middle letter is marked with a 4 • An Introduction to Aramaic dagesh (doubled), just like Hebrew's pi c el, and another characterized by a prefixed it, like the hifil. We will, therefore, take advantage of your Hebrew background, rather than trying to introduce everything you would need to learn if you were studying Aramaic from scratch. Aramaic phenomena will often be explained in terms of their Hebrew counterparts. We will not, for example, describe the alphabet, since biblical Aramaic is written with the same script and follows several of the same principles (e.g., the use of dagesh lene in the letters n"SD T'^Q) as biblical Hebrew. However useful it may be to treat Aramaic as a dialect of Hebrew, we need to remem- ber that it is really a separate language. This approach can, therefore, create problems. Chief among these is the fact that the vowels, on which so much of biblical grammar centers, were added by the Masoretes over a thousand years after the biblical books had themselves been written. We should, therefore, at least wonder how reliable a guide they are to ancient Aramaic usage. Of course, that is a problem for the study of biblical Hebrew as well; indeed, since the Masoretes wrote their own notes in Aramaic, they may have been more familiar with Aramaic grammar than with Hebrew and, therefore, imposed some of its principles onto the Hebrew sections of the Bible. Because of our presumption that your reason for learning Aramaic is based in the Bible, its Aramaic passages will be used as the focus of our study, with sample readings included in each chapter. These have been edited in order to progress from relatively simple to more complex usage, until the last chapter of biblical Aramaic (Daniel 7) will be read exact- ly as it appears in the Bible. Because our focus will be on grammar and vocabulary, you should turn to the standard commentaries for historical and exegetical questions. The most useful ones on Ezra are those by Loring Batten (International Critical Commentary), Jacob Myers (Anchor Bible), and H. G. M. Williamson (Word Biblical Commentary); and for Daniel, those of James Montgomery (International Critical Commentary), John Collins (Hermeneia), and Louis Hartman and Alexander DiLella (Anchor Bible). Since only part of Ezra and Daniel are in Aramaic,* it would be helpful to read the preceding (Hebrew) sec- tions (Ezra 1 : 1-4:7), at least in English, before beginning with the Aramaic in chapter 3 of this book. *This strange phenomenon is discussed in many of the standard introductions to the Bible, such as Otto Eissfeldt, The Old Testament, An Introduction (New York: Harper and Row, 1965) pp. 516-17, 543, and 551. Chapter 2 A Brief History of Aramaic The term "Aram" was used in place names almost four thousand years ago; the book of Genesis mentions places called Paddan-Aram and Aram-Naharaim. However, there are no references to the Aramean people themselves until the eleventh century, when the Assyrian ruler Tiglath Pileser I encountered them on military expeditions along the Euphrates. They had apparently established small, independent kingdoms, primarily in Syria, but extending as far east as the Persian Gulf. One Aramean ruler, named Adad-apla-iddina, even seized the Babylonian throne before coming under attack from other Arameans. The Bible describes close connections between Israel's patriarchs and Aram, where they "returned" from time to time (Genesis 24:1-10, 28:1-5), usually to find suitable wives. Deuteronomy even refers to the Israelites as being descended from "a wandering Aramean" (26:5) in a passage traditionally linked to Jacob, whose father-in-law Laban is called an Aramean in Genesis 31:20. Although scholars are not certain about the historical reliability of biblical statements about the patriarchs, such passages do demonstrate that the Israelites believed they were related to the Arameans. During the period of Israel's monarchy, the Aramean kingdoms of Zobah and Damascus jockeyed with Israel for power and preeminence. The Bible reports that David defeated Hadadezer, the ruler of Zobah (2 Samuel 8:3-10), and that Solomon battled with Rezon, who had fled from Zobah and become king in Damascus (1 Kings 11:23-25). After the Israelite kingdom split near the end of the 10th century, regional control passed back and forth between the now-divided kingdoms of Israel and Judah and the Arameans, depending most often on whether the Israelite kingdoms were united or not. Sometimes they were subordinate to the Aramaeans (1 Kings 15:8-20, 20:34, 2 Kings 10:32, 12:17, 13:7,22); at others, they were dominant (1 Kings 20:34, 2 Kings 13:25). In the ninth century, an alliance linking Damascus and Hamath with the Northern Kingdom as well as nine other countries was able to withstand the powerful Assyrian ruler Shalmaneser III (853 b.c.e.); a decade later, the coalition fell apart and these same nations were defeated (841 b.c.e.). In the middle of the eighth century, Damascus entered into another alliance with Northern Israel, this time including the Phoenicians of Tyre. They tried to gain Judean sup- port, but the king of Judah turned instead to Assyria, which was more than willing to inter- vene. As a result, the Aramean states were conquered by Tiglath-Pileser III, who claims to 6 • An Introduction to Aramaic have destroyed "592 towns ... of the sixteen districts of the country of Damascus."* He put several Aramean kingdoms under direct Assyrian control, including ultimately Damascus itself. The Arameans' political power thus came to an end; however, their language survived, ironically achieving a far wider presence than the people among whom it had originated. Aramaic is usually divided into several dialects, organized according to chronological and geographic principles. Although several systems have been proposed for doing this, each with its own idiosyncrasies, their general structures are quite similar. Our earliest evidence of Aramaic comes from the Aramaic kingdoms just described. These are said to be written in "Old" or "Ancient" Aramaic. Among them are several inscrip- tions from northern Syria (mostly near the town of Aleppo) that were written early in the first millennium b.c.e. (probably between the tenth and the seventh centuries). The language of these texts shares a variety of features with Hebrew, suggesting that the division between the Aramaic and the Canaanite (Hebrew and Phoenician) branches of Northwest Semitic was rel- atively recent. A sample of an Aramaic text from this period will be read in chapter 28. The next period of Aramaic is dominated by what is called Official, Imperial, or Standard Literary Aramaic because it served as the official administrative language of the Persian empire from the sixth to the fourth centuries, although it may have begun to spread somewhat earlier, under the Assyrians and Babylonians. This is also the dialect found in the Bible, although some scholars assign the book of Daniel to a later category. Several ancient sources document the growing prevalence of Aramaic. The Bible reports a request by Judean leaders that the Assyrian army, which was besieging Jerusalem near the end of the eighth century, use Aramaic so that the people would not understand what they were saying (2 Kings 18:26 = Isaiah 36:11), suggesting that the leaders of the time were familiar with it. A century later, when a Philistine ruler sought assistance from the Egyptian Pharaoh, he wrote in Aramaic, demonstrating that the language had already achieved a sig- nificant role in international communication.** After Judah fell to the Babylonian emperor Nebuchadnezzar, the Jews adopted the Aramean form of what had originally been the Phoenician alphabet. (It is important to distin- guish between a language and a script; one could, for example, theoretically write English using the Hebrew, Cyrillic or Japanese scripts, or any other alphabet for that matter. Some Aramaic texts were written in Egyptian [demotic] and cuneiform scripts.) Interestingly, deriv- atives of the older script were still used by Jews from time to time, as in coins produced by the Maccabees and the later rebel leader Bar Kochba as well as some of the Dead Sea Scrolls. * James Pritchard, Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Testament (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1969) p. 283. ** See Bezalel Porten, "The Identity of King Adon," Biblical Archaeologist 44 (1981) 36-52; the role of Aramaic is comparable to that of Akkadian in the fourteenth-century correspondence between Egypt and its Canaanite subordinates from Tell el-Amarna. 2. A Brief History of Aramaic • 7 The Arab tribe known as the Nabateans also used an alphabet that was based on the older letters, as do the Samaritans to the present day. When Persia, which defeated Babylonia in 539, adopted Aramaic for official adminis- trative purposes, the language's importance grew dramatically. Eventually, the Persian empire stretched from Egypt to India, ensuring Aramaic's widespread use and prominence. Official sponsorship also created a kind of standardization, something which did not begin to wane until the encroachment of Greek under Alexander the Great and then, many centuries later, Arabic. Among those who returned from the Babylonian exile, familiarity with Aramaic was no longer limited to the leaders of Judea. In addition to the extensive sections of Daniel and Ezra which are written in Aramaic, its influence can be felt in Hebrew books of the Bible which were composed after the exile. Some scholars have even understood Nehemiah 8:8 to suggest that the Jews of this period needed to have their scriptures translated into Aramaic. Aramaic continued unchallenged among Jews until the coming of the Greeks. It was particularly prevalent in Palestine during the time of Jesus, a period for which we use the term "Middle" Aramaic. Since the Persian empire, which had been responsible for the language's earlier uniformity, no longer existed, it is not surprising that regional variation begins to be apparent at this time (note the reference to Peter's distinctive accent in Matthew 26:73). These include the dialects attested in the Dead Sea Scrolls (see chapter 30) and the New Testament, as well as that in use among the Arab tribes known as Nabateans. The earliest layers of the targumim to the Pentateuch (Onkelos) and the Prophets (Jonathan) also probably date from this period. Other dialects are known from Palmyra (biblical Tadmor) and Edessa in Syria, and Hatra, which is in Mesopotamia. The title "Late" Aramaic is used for material written between the second and the ninth (or possibly later) centuries c.e. From Palestine come a wide range of Jewish sources, includ- ing the Palestinian Talmud, midrashim, and several targumim (see chapters 31 and 32). Other writings from this region are by Christians (presumably converts from Judaism) and Samaritans. In the east, one finds Babylonian Jewish (for the Babylonian Talmud), Mandaic, and Syriac texts, with the latter divided into eastern and western dialects. Finally, there is "Modern Aramaic," which is spoken in several villages near Damascus, the largest of which is MaTula, as well as among Christians in southeastern Turkey (near Tur c Abdin), Mandeans in southern Iran, and Jews and Christians from Iraqi and Iranian Kurdistan, virtually all of whom have now migrated to Israel and the United States. Thus, the Aramaic language has outlived the people whose name it bears, with a rich and extensive literature created by several different communities. Indeed, the language's very survival is the result of its having been adopted, for various purposes, by several different peoples who created with it a substantial body of documents that have played an important historical role. Chapter 3 The Aramaic Language Because they are both members of the Northwest branch of the Semitic language fam- ily, Aramaic and Hebrew have many words in common, as we saw in Chapter 1. Further evi- dence of this can be seen by comparing Jesus' words on the cross as presented by the Gospels of Matthew and Mark with the Psalm verse from which they were taken: r(ki r(kt Xe]xa caPa%9avi (Matthew 27:46) eXmt eXcoi Xajj.a o"a(3a%0avi (Mark 15:34) 'JFQW Uftb "ty* ^ (Psalm 22:1 [2]) Although the first three words in these passages are virtually identical,* the difference in the last word of the quote demonstrates that the Gospels are not reporting a Hebrew tradi- tion, since there is no Hebrew word which might be represented by oaPa%6avi. Such a word does, however, exist in Aramaic, where pD$ means "abandon," just like the Hebrew DTI?; indeed, the ancient Aramaic translation (targum) of Psalm 22 uses pDE? to translate DT£> in this very passage. The striking similarity between the first three words in both Gospel accounts and their Hebrew equivalent demonstrates how close Hebrew and Aramaic really are. Even the struc- ture of the final verb is essentially the same, once one accounts for their different roots ptt? instead of pOttf); that is to say that in each text the verb's root consonants are separated by the vowel a and followed by tha (the second person masculine singular suffix) and then ni (for the first person singular direct object).** The Hebrew Bible contains one Aramaic sentence outside the books of Daniel and Ezra. It is found in Jeremiah 10:11:*** * The transliteration of the New Testament passages is eli eli lema sabakhthani (Matthew) and eloi eloi lama sabakhthani (Mark). ** Vowel differences in the first three words as presented by Matthew and Mark may reflect characteristi- cally Aramaic features — the reduction of originally pretonic short vowels (see chapter 5), hence Hebrew TV^l = Aramaic i"IO?, and the 3d person masculine singular pronominal suffix 'Hi" (see chapter 13). *** As one might imagine, the existence of this one Aramaic sentence has raised a host of questions in the minds of biblical scholars, many of whom have theorized that it is a gloss which was introduced into the text by mistake. 8 3. The Aramaic Language • 9 rnr a*? Rj?"]R] k'50 "n tfrfpis □in'? •pnoKn nans .rfptf r»d0 ninrj ]pi kit|rd nn»! A close look at this verse demonstrates many similarities with Hebrew: □in'? jnpKn nn? Pin +3 — iin is equivalent to Hebrew I1T. 3 — means "like" or "as" in Aramaic, just as it does in Hebrew. "ION — is a very common verb in biblical Hebrew, where it means "say." The -Fl pre- fix and V suffix indicate that the word is imperfect, 2d person, masculine plur- al (plural suffixes often have a final |- in Aramaic, as sometimes occurs in bib- lical Hebrew), so that the whole form means "you shall say." Din'? =Hebrew UPb. V T Thus, the phrase Gin 4 ? VCfoW} T\TO ("thus shall you say to them") corresponds to the Hebrew Crf? ITptfn n'3. toi? vb Npnw wne? s n wrh» - ~: t |t: - : t - : t ~ t v: Most of these words are very similar to Hebrew: wn^ = n , n''?$ »*? = »"? The root 12V also occurs in Hebrew, although its meaning "serve" is inappropriate here; the meaning is clearly "make" (i.e. TliDH). Since "n means "which" or "who," this phrase can be recognized as corresponding to the Hebrew: ...."] maefcl (fl$) IfcH? ^ im ETt^Ol) The context clearly requires that the next word (NP"lijt) be equivalent to Hebrew Y "Wl. Notice the Aramaic ending N~ on NVfrN, N*Q$ and NjPnN where Hebrew uses a pre- fixed Tl. Thus the whole phrase means "the gods which did not make the heavens and the earth." 10 • An Introduction to Aramaic n% k 9 oej ninn p wriKD naw Every word in this section has an exact Hebrew equivalent, so it is easily translated as: rf?N(ri) matin nnncppi pan p nrwr (shall perish from the earth and from under these heavens) Notice how this phrase uses NIHN where the earlier part of the verse had NjP*"]N as the equivalent to the Hebrew THR.* VOCABULARY You will need the following vocabulary to understand the simplified version of Ezra 4:8-11 that is given below. Before reading that, it would be a good idea to read the preceding sec- tions of Ezra (1:1-4:7) either in the original Hebrew or in English translation. To Be Learned letter rnSN the letter Km2K t : _ ■ God W?«) rfrtj which, that, of . . . . "H this nn write nrD to _t 7 to them Din 1 ? king *^70 the king RS'pD the scribe N"BD on, to, against, concerning . . . . bv send nb'\D Reference perish "DN these H7N say ")QN earth RSTIR earth Rj?"]R and "1 from ]Q do, make ""Di? heaven N'OEJ under niilH See page 14 below. 3. The Aramaic Language • 11 FROM THE BIBLE (Ezra 4:8-11) .vobn RFitoBfrirns 1 ? D^rr by rna$ inn? tnso •'ttfpttf] Din - ] Proper Nouns snCEJnn"lS — Artaxerxes, the Persian king (ruled 465-425 b.c.e.), who appointed Nehemiah governor of Jerusalem; either he or Darius' son Artaxerxes II (ruled 404-359 b.c.e.) authorized Ezra's mission to Jerusalem. The Bible also spells the name as KnfoEJnFl")Hl and KFlOE'nFni* (e.g., Ezra 4:7 and 7:12). D^EftT — Jerusalem, where the Judeans who had returned from Babylonian exile had settled. Although the city's name has come to be spelled DI^EfaT in Hebrew, it appears without a , in the Bible (see p. 43 below). ''EtoEfr rail"! — Officials in Persia's Trans-Euphrates province. EXERCISES The following Aramaic sentences use vocabulary that should be familiar from biblical Hebrew (the vowels may be somewhat different). Read each sentence out loud and translate it into English: .nth »rna» nns tnso (l) t :- - - : t:t v/ .N S QCB 722 XnbK (2) t - : - -: t t v: x ' .D^rr bs xf?n no$ (3) 12 • An Introduction to Aramaic .tinsab NmaN nbti Nrfro (4) t:t: t : - • - : t:~ x/ .... K'Dttf ]D Nil'?!* 10$ (5) .kitik ninn rtn »-iso -na (6) .ns^q 1 ? »jn» ,_ i "1QK »n"7» (7) T : - T : - ■ -_ : tt v: x y Chapter 4 Consonants Although some Aramaic dialects, such as Syriac and Nabatean, have their own scripts, the Aramaic sections of the Bible are written with the same alphabet as its Hebrew passages. Therefore, you already know how to read biblical Aramaic. And since Aramaic belongs to the same Northwest group of the Semitic family of languages as does Hebrew, these two lan- guages have a goodly number of words in common, so that your knowledge of Hebrew pro- vides a substantial Aramaic vocabulary as well. However, the number of these words can be easily multiplied. The consonantal alphabet used for both Hebrew and Aramaic was probably invented by the Phoenicians, but it did not fit either language perfectly, since both originally had more sounds than the number of Phoenician letters. (English has the same problem, since our 26 letter alphabet, which also derives from the Phoenicians, does not have enough symbols to represent all the sounds we use. That is why we have to use pairs of letters, such as sh and th, for some sounds.) For Hebrew and Aramaic, certain individual letters were used to represent what were originally different sounds; however, the two languages sometimes use different letters for what were originally the same sounds. Words that look different in Hebrew and Aramaic may, therefore, actually be historically related. An example of this involves the letter CD, which Hebrew uses for what were originally two different sounds — sh and th (as in English "thin"). The first of these quite separate con- sonants occurs in the word nb\D ("send"), while the second was in the Hebrew word HET ("sit, dwell"). However, Aramaic uses 2? only for words which originally included sh, representing the th sound with the letter P, which it also uses for the sound t, as does Hebrew. Thus, il'PEJ and DPD ("write") are found in both languages, whereas Aramaic has HP 1 for the Hebrew word ntf\ 13 14 An Introduction to Aramaic Semitic Hebrew Aramaic sh ej nbv 2j n 1 ?© (send) th Ej •jgfi n irp (dwell) t n nro n nna (write) A similar phenomenon occurs with the letters 1 and T. In Hebrew T is used both for the sound z (as in the word XT, which means "seed") and for a letter that was once pronounced as d (like the th in "than"), which occurs in the word l"QT ("sacrifice"). However, Aramaic uses T only for the z sound, whereas d is represented with the letter "I, which both languages also use for the sound d. Thus, the Hebrew word XT corresponds to XT in Aramaic, but the Aramaic cognate of the Hebrew word l"DT is niT Semitic z d d Hebrew Aramaic t xt t xt (seed) t nil i mi (sacrifice) 1 XT 1 XT (know) A final example of this phenomenon involves the letter U, which Hebrew uses for what were originally three different sounds: (1) s, as in the word D^ ("image"), (2) t, as in T"'p ("summer"), and (3) d, as in Y~)$ ("land"). However, Aramaic represents these with three dif- ferent consonants — U, CD, and X* Therefore, the Hebrew word C^K is d?"$ in Aramaic, but fp occurs as ETp, and pN as XT$. Semitic Hebrew Aramaic s js nbx 25 o 1 ?? (image) t % n? a B?i? (summer) 4 K n$ X SH® (earth, sometimes written p~lN) The following chart summarizes these equivalences according to which letter is used in Aramaic. Being familiar with them will make it possible to recognize many Aramaic words that do not look exactly like their Hebrew counterparts. * This last consonant is sometimes represented with a p, as in the form Np"T$, which occurs alongside NIHN in Jeremiah 10:11 (see p. 10) and in early inscriptions (see p. 168). 4. Consonants Aramaic Hebrew Semitic 1 d ~ T d 15 T T z B ? B K t* # U 'org #/p ^ J IS H s ti 2J .S Y 2? r n n t Other historical-linguistic processes can help in recognizing more word relationships. For example, many Semitic languages form nouns by adding an initial ("prosthetic") N to a three letter root. Thus the number "four" (#31$) has four letters in both Hebrew and Aramaic; however, its root is actually #3"), as can be seen from the ordinal 'JP'II ("fourth"). Similarly, the word for "arm" exists in two forms, both in Hebrew (I1~)T and #*i*"lTN) and in Aramaic (#11 and #11$). This principle accounts for the relationship between the Hebrew word mjl and the Aramaic ilTn$, both of which mean "riddle." Conversely, the Aramaic word in ("one") cor- responds to the Hebrew inijt. Less certain is the relationship between the word #N, which means "tree" in biblical Aramaic, and its apparent Hebrew cognate f*#. The original root was presumably c d, which came to be T*# in Hebrew and is represented as p# in several fifth century Aramaic documents (see p. 178). It should be ## in biblical Aramaic, but the first # apparently dissimilated to an N in order to avoid having two identical consonants next to each other. *This letter is sometimes transliterated as d or z. 16 An Introduction to Aramaic VOCABULARY To Be Learned we natia$ in "3 build ma participle (mp) fO? passive imf 3 fs ^3?T1F1 that ^-] know 1)1'' passive participle JTT causal pf ( 1 p) NliHin causal ptc (mp) 'pIHinQ now JID not $b T rebellious (fs) ^?1"1? give jl"l] imperfect (3 mp) .... filPiT * the city ^CHP Reference there is i rTN tax t>3 search "lpa imf 3 ms "IJ55*! if ]n memoranda ^"Pl be mn /m/5 ms ^IlJ 1 ?** portion pbl to you 1^ find rati causal imf 2 ms . . . rDttfPlPl n^C perfect 7 p ^Tib0 FROM THE BIBLE (Ezra 4:12-16) XV 1 ? spy, 1^? .f!3a Nn-nn annp D^tfrr triiir; "i sa'pn'? Kin 1 ? in*! rs'TQ 1 ? twinim ^arr'p^? nn ^ .^nr vb fra wann ^"t Krnp ]n h tones'? narigsj fining .kttq «np? ^"i Rrnp? "i nattfnrfi K 9 T 3");n isoa ipa": -i t-f? ■»rp» tf? tnrj] "OJ?a p^D wann *H Krrjp l 1 " 1 "^ Names'? Note: Wl- is a feminine suffix; thus both NTIO tVHp and^HTlQ KrP"lp mean "rebellious city." T tttt:|- t : t t t : :l ■ J * Note that the initial ] does not assimilate in this form as it does in the Hebrew equivalent. ** See p. 79. 4. Consonants 17 Proper Nouns WHirr; — (the) Judeans. NTfi3~T31? — Trans-Euphrates, one of the Persian Empire's several major provinces (satrapies); it stretched along the Mediterranean coast, west (and south) of the Euphrates River, and included the land of Judah ("HIT). EXERCISES Write the following Aramaic words next to their Hebrew cognates: (six) rw (new) rnn (arm) I?"1"TM (return) 3151 (advise) ^V (riddle) nTriK (ox) Tin (sit, dwell) nrr (there is) TP8 (snow) n'pn (lie) rm? (land) U-\$ (three) rbv\ (guard) Tffl3 (sacrifice) n3 r T (unit of weight) ^PP) (summer) tD , p (gold) 3H"I (memorandum) VOl T2U ET vt>v ±>V 3D TV pr bpti JJTTN 11-DT 3ET Tie) 3HT rnn p« tfin rat 312J 2JJD 18 • An Introduction to Aramaic Translate into English: .Krnp |"B ram**: (l) .^i T arnaa rfpeJ tnao (2) .kithd tfpitfiTa $n% ratfnn (3) .rnrjr-nin Din 1 ? pbn v% $■? (4) .tones'? 1^3 ^.-nrr fianr -i jr-p ]i?3 (5) ,nn j-p-r ana Dinn (6) Chapter 5 Vowels The Hebrew Bible was originally written with only consonants. The Masoretes, who added the vowels, used essentially the same system for both the Hebrew and the Aramaic sec- tions; however, the vowel systems are not completely identical. For example, the composite sh'va is not limited to guttural letters as it is in Hebrew, but also appears before and after the letters p and 3 and before ^,3, and ~l, as can be seen in the following words: nma nip - :-:•: t|t: Other differences between Hebrew and Aramaic involve the way each of them treats certain vowels: (1) The Canaanite Shift (d> o) — long a usually became long o (o) in some Northwest Semitic languages, including Hebrew. However, Aramaic belongs to a non-Canaanite group of languages, in which the original vowel (a) is retained. A familiar example is the Hebrew word Efbti. Both vowels in this word were once pronounced a, but the second one was long (the Arabic word is salam). In the Canaanite branch that vowel became 6, but not in Aramaic where the word is, therefore, pronounced Cb'\D. The following words provide several other examples: Hebrew ill aid *b bp (2) Reduction of Short Vowels — short vowels that occur in syllables immediately prior to the accent become long in Hebrew but are reduced in Aramaic. That is why the first syllable of Df7ttf has a qames (a) in Hebrew, but a sh'va (d70) in Aramaic. Other Aramaic words reflect this same principle: 19 Aramaic EJ3N tv: (man) ~n (generation) ac? (good) «■? (not) nbv (eternity) ^ (sound) 20 • An Introduction to Aramaic Aramaic Hebrew Tim (hundred) n^o K*aj (prophet) » , ?3 Tnr (ready) Tni? Both of these principles can be seen by comparing the Aramaic word for "three" (n^Fl) with its Hebrew equivalent (2J1 z 1 ©), in which the first vowel, which was originally a short a pre- ceding the accent, has become a sh 'va in Aramaic but a long a in Hebrew while the second vowel, which was originally a long a, has shifted to o. Notice also the equivalence of Hebrew 2? and Aramaic n. (3) Segolate nouns — Many Hebrew nouns with the accent on their first syllable and a segol in the second (e.g., "["?!?, "ISO, and 2J*tp) developed out of words that were originally mono-syllabic (i.e. ~T?U, "ISO 2J"IP). In Aramaic these usually have only one full vowel, but it is found under the second consonant. (As in Hebrew, it often shifts to a when there is a gut- tural or ~l nearby.) Aramaic Hebrew nr f? (meal) nr t? Q 1 ?^ (statue) D 1 ?^ ^pn (unit of weight) bpy =193 (silver) 19? "l#B (interpretation) "103 -\m (eagle) "1253 "IQJ? (wool) "TD^ "bv) (snow) a'ptf ISO (book) *1?D ton© (tribe) 1212? W"l (anger) w'"i sn\ (seed) v~i\ W (master) ^3 For the vocalization of this form, compare its Akkadian cognate belu, in contrast to the Hebrew 7^5. 5. Vowels 21 In Aramaic, as in Hebrew, the original vowel often returns when a suffix is added: e.g., N2D5 — the silver ■p-fip — documents FH2S — its interpretation VOCABULARY To Be Learned then p_K stop 'PEQ G (intrans) pf 3 fs .... fi^Efl D (^rans) p/J p l^tSS D (frans) in/ rr L pC3n L p house f"f 3 master "TWSl them ian decree D.UC? <#da/ DiJB ^3 do inv Gt (passive) participle "QI?riQ work, service nTQJ? eternity Nft'p.y before Dip t)t: before me ''QID T TIT peace D^CD strong *?(?? mp j's'pn Reference go (G) ^m pf3 mp ftm be mn G pf 3 mp iirj days (p csir) no? dwell (G) in 1 Gptcmp 'pnrp G infofnn K33Q kings ] , ?'?Q after "I ]Q rebellion T1Q letter ^IPIEJ] message NftllS is read "Hp issue ETiD imv mp IITE? remnant *1NE? Gpf2mpofnbti 22 An Introduction to Aramaic FROM THE BIBLE (Ezra 4:17-24) "in^ iKEfi ]naeJa parr "H mao ^atf] aye? ^ya airn ^ aa'pa nbw Na^na not p ^1 «rnpa fai>nn Tip /Dip nj? , pnn i ?0 ,_ t wiriKJ? .D'ptf :rnrja >f\ arrnp «33ia n'paa'? artp iirto jra .Dbtfn^ ^ tin ■pspjpn •pa'pai Ktfpi? frtij tnao ^atf] rann dtj? nj? aa'pa KnfctfnFnK "i iwTitfa 'n p p.$ .o'ptfrpa "i sn^a rra nraJ? rtea pj*a -ian i^cprn *rriiT ^ a'pEftT'? Proper Nouns ■p-JOE? — Persian province in the central hill country; named after the capital of Israel's Northern Kingdom when it was conquered by the Assyrians in 721 b.c.e. EXERCISES Explain the differences between the following pairs of Hebrew and Aramaic cognates: Aramaic Hebrew vb *h> (not) ~lQi? "IDS (wool) NT T It (this) r TI9 Jfl?$ (arm) ibn ^2J (snow) •pQSEJ D^BBitf (judges) 1H3 -in] (river) mn ais (return) Difference 5. Vowels 23 Aramaic no ISO nirj nnrj nrn -an 0*717 Hebrew isio Bin T T -1I7CD -inn nnr T T nis Difference (six) (scribe) (women) (new) (hair) (companion) (gold) (ten) (sign) (break) (eternity) Translate into English: .•pETjpn p'po'? r™ xzby ^173 nns (l) .Kn-pQ Rrnpa rra •pB &ot$ (2) ♦D^tfrpa nrin ftaa ian p.$ (3) 24 • An Introduction to Aramaic ,nj? *WTH# "H |Q tnSO DTj? Drtp ID'fo (4) .»?Tir^ ^ rrrruj j^nr «•? ]i?3 (5) .»nnp ^ ^t$ K's^ri » 9 T ? i ?Q (6) .^3 dhjp njp «n^ nytp (7) .nn kst3 man rtea'? 'M -13$ pa (8) .□■ptpnrn lip nn:? ian (9) .NO'?!? |Q Dl'n'p Cb0 1Q"S (10) .aa'po "H wrpa riTar nto -i nibo 4 ? •pininn Kama (11) Chapter 6 Nouns, Definite Article Nouns behave much the same way in Aramaic as they do in Hebrew: They can be mas- culine or feminine, absolute or construct, singular or plural (or dual). However, Aramaic nouns are unique in two, nearly ubiquitous features. (1) Alongside the absolute and construct, Aramaic has a third "state," called "deter- mined." This form typically ends with N-, although it is occasionally spelled with the letter it. It functions much like the definite article in Hebrew (-11); that is to say, words with the deter- minative ending K- can be translated "the . . ." (In some later dialects of Aramaic this deter- mined form of the noun became the normal one and thereby lost its connotation of definite- ness.) Although there is nothing formally comparable to the determined suffix K- in biblical Hebrew, it does exist in a word which occurs several times in the New Testament and has become standard in modern Hebrew. In Mark 14:36, Jesus refers to God as aPPa.* This is obviously the determined form of the noun UN ("father"), which has survived into modern Hebrew, where it and its feminine counterpart NQN serve as familiar forms, equivalent to the English "Daddy" and "Mommy." (2) Masculine plural forms usually end with ] - , rather than the D- that is familiar in Hebrew. In fact, the Hebrew Bible contains many masculine forms that end with |. Before either Aramaic or Hebrew had reached the stage with which we are familiar, masculine plur- al forms were apparently marked with ''-. Later, Hebrew and Aramaic added different conso- nants to this original suffix. As a result, masculine plural nouns usually end with V- rather than C: as they do in Hebrew. Aramaic's added | can also be found on verbs, most notably in the imperfect: * Contrast the parallel passages Matthew 26:39 and Luke 22:42; but see Romans 8:15 and Galatians 4:6. This is the source of our own English term "Abbot." 25 26 An Introduction to Aramaic Aramaic Hebrew 2d feminine singular l^aroFi ^riDFi 2d masculine plural ■pirDFi iaron 2d feminine plural pFDFI np'ron 3d masculine plural ■p^rpi nrp 1 3d feminine plural pro nn'ron t : : ■ ulting noun patterns are: masculine feminine singular absolute t?9 nzibn* construct t?9 ns'pn determined t : - wtd^g plural absolute p'po P*?5 construct , '? i ?0 ro'aa T determined K'^Q sriD^Q Notice the H t - ending on the construct and determined forms of the feminine plural. This cor- responds to Hebrew's feminine plural suffix Hi-. (Remember that long a becomes long o in Hebrew.) Not all nouns fit these patterns perfectly. As in any language, Aramaic has some irreg- ular forms. These include plurals which do not seem to match their singulars, whether in form or in gender: ■pEJ3 "women" (The Bible does not include a singular form, but compare Hebrew nm, for which the plural is D^l) jrDN "fathers" (This form is inferred from the construct HPON, which can be com- pared to the Hebrew plural nllR.) jPIftEJ "names," judging from the construct nrjftS (cf. Hebrew DiQEJ). Similarly, the plural for "great" Cpn*"Q"")) is an expanded form of T] (cf. Cn-pl, "chiefs"). * In the Bible, the feminine suffix !"[- is sometimes spelled with an tf, just as the determined suffix K; is sometimes spelled with a i"l. Notice the inconsistent use of dagesh, which occurs in the D of singular but not the plural forms of both masculine and feminine. 6. Nouns, Definite Article 27 Like Hebrew, Aramaic also has dual forms, although there are not many examples in the Bible. Perhaps some dual forms are indistinguishable from the plural so that we cannot identify them. However, those that can be recognized resemble their Hebrew equivalents, except for the no-longer surprising presence of ]- where Hebrew has □-: e.g., jH; (2 hands) ]TIKQ (200) VOCABULARY To Be Learned say "1QN participle (m p) f"!0N he came NHN son ~Q man (plural | , *133) ~Q3 and -y~) who p ' governor HPIS arise (G) Dip perfect 3 mp 10j? issue (an order) WfD Gpf3ms Dtp name (plural PHOtD) Dtp Reference god rtyt their gods D'!"[n78 was (Gpf3fs o/mn) rnrj thus p to you (mp) D'D^ build (G infinitive) N3Dft prophesy (Dt ^aajTJ) N33 prophet K'la eye |^ on them jirr^ FROM THE BIBLE (Ezra 5:1-5) ribs DEJ'a D'ptp'iTii ira ^ iTTirr ^£> wo afro in rnpn •'an 'aa.rirn rra ana 1 ? pi^i" in vw) bwrbxti id tent iop pa? .)irtf?J> ^"ifer pas pi ■'aria — ineJi rnrja. in^ nns "ann •prr'piJ an** .□ i ?Ein , 3 "i tdm ?] , ajn ten -i anna nrratp p ?t«ao , p nn Rrra n^cp Dtp p ttinb .Ian fraa ^i *mrp ^ mn tinrfra rn t : - t : - t -: -; t v: I ■• : * In Exodus 16:15 this word is the basis for a pun with the Hebrew word ]D, meaning "manna." 28 An Introduction to Aramaic Proper Nouns N*n,y ~Q !T*"pT — A Judean prophet of priestly descent during the reign of Darius I (521-486 b.c.e.), who encouraged the reestablishment of the kingdom. t 7t*rn'?$2? *"Q ^53")T — Grandson of Judah's king Jehoiachin, who was appointed gov- ernor by the Persians and led a group of exiles back to Judah, where he was viewed by some Judeans with messianic fervor. ''jn — Prophesied to those who had returned to Judah in 520 on the importance of rebuilding the Temple. "HIT — Province of Persian empire, centered in Jerusalem. ^ISn&T — Still used after the exile to refer to the ethnicity of the people chosen by God. plKV ~Q J^ET (called JJttfiiT in Haggai and Zechariah) — Descendant of Seriah, a leading priest who was killed when the Babylonians conquered Jerusalem and whose son Jozadak was taken into exile; he returned to Judah in 520 with Zerubbabel, alongside of whom he played a major role in the reestablishment of sacrifice. •^•m—flttf — Persian official. 'XlFl — Persian governor of Trans-Euphrates under Darius I. EXERCISES Fill in the blank with the Aramaic translation of the parenthesized words: , (of a king) nrn yn irirr (l) .rnaift nns n:i (scribe) (2) .K*"Q3 (the names of) (3) Fill in the following charts with the noun forms given below: absolute construct determined Singular Plural RKP33 ,)^53 ^N^ ^'23 /Wg] absolute ISO ,Knso ,»pap ,nap ,pap absolute (5. Nouns, Definite Article • 29 construct construct wnTau ,nTar ,»riTn^ ,iTnr jima ,n-i , nr absolute construct determined Singular Plural determined Singular Plural determined Singular Plural nnp ^nnp ,rnp ,pj? ,Krnp ,nnp absolute construct determined Singular Plural 30 • An Introduction to Aramaic pt'pn rnbx jNrb* ^nba ;nbx t v: '| ■ t v: ' t t v: ' t - t v: ' ■■ t v: absolute construct "ISO ,NHS0 riBD ,120 ,S1SD ■■ : t ' t - : t ' I t ' - t ' t:t absolute construct Translate into Aramaic: (1) The scribe wrote the names of the men. (2) The prophets of Israel arose before the kings. (3) They sent the letter to Trans-Euphrates. determined Singular Plural determined Singular Plural (4) God came to Israel. (5) They are building the city of Jerusalem (6) A master issued a decree. (7) We informed the men of the city. 6. Nouns, Definite Article • 31 (8) Who are the governors of Judah and Samaria? Chapter 7 The Verb System Verbal systems are a prominent feature of most languages and provide a particularly useful way to classify them. Semitic verbs are based on three-letter roots, which can be con- jugated in several different ways. Hebrew is usually said to have 7 of these conjugations (□r]3) — qal, nifal, pi c el, hifil, pu c al, hofal, and hitpa c el. In order to facilitate comparisons with other languages, these are identified here with single letters, which reflect their charac- teristic features: Qal is called G for the German Grundstamm, which means "basic conjuga- tion," as does the Hebrew term qal. Pi c el is designated D for its doubled middle letter. The hifil will be called H, and the nifal (which does not exist in Aramaic) N in recognition of the letter which is prefixed to each. This scheme of 7 separate conjugations is somewhat artificial. In the first place, sev- eral of these conjugations are actually related to each other. These include the pu c al and the hofal, which are patently variations (sometimes called internal passives) of the pi c el and hifil, with which they are identical except for their u-a vowel pattern, which shifts the meaning from active to passive.* (Significantly, Hebrew's qal passive participle, e.g., 1TO, also uses a and u vowels.) The hitpa c el (here designated Dt) is built on the pi c el, as can be seen from the fact that its middle root letter is doubled. The prefix -IT! conveyed a reflexive meaning and was not nec- essarily limited to a pi c el base, as can be seen from other Semitic languages.** The Bible pre- serves a handful of Hebrew words in which this prefix was added to qal forms ("Ipsnn in Judges 20:15,17, 21:9; note the passive forms beginning with with -nil in Numbers 1:47 and 2:33). At the same time that several of these seven standard conjugations appear to be related to one another, there are conjugations that this list does not include. Thus Gesenius' Hebrew grammar lists po c el, pa c lel, pe c al c al, pilpel, tifel, and safel.*** *The Hebrew qal probably had an internal passive, too; for the evidence, see A Grammar of Biblical Hebrew by Paul Joiion and T. Muraoka (Rome: Pontifical Biblical Institute, 1991) §58, pp. 166-68. ** Although Aramaic is the only Semitic language in which a t can be added to the H conjugation, several languages which form their causatives with to have it (including Hebrew ninPlEJil); see Sabatino Moscati, An Introduction to the Comparative Grammar of the Semitic Languages (Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz, 1969) §16.17-23, pp. 127-30. *** A. E. Cowley, Gesenius' Hebrew Grammar as edited and enlarged by the late E. Kautzsch (2d English edition, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1910) §55, pp. 151-54. 32 7. The Verb System 33 Because Aramaic belongs to the same Northwest group of the Semitic language fam- ily as does Hebrew, its verbal system is essentially the same and can be characterized with the following pattern: Passive Prefixed t G p ec al p ec il Gt—hitp ec el D pa cc el pu cc al Dt — hitpa cc al H hafel hofal Ht — hitafal (not in biblical Aramaic) N not in Aramaic As in Hebrew, each Aramaic conjugation comprises two major tenses, one of which generates its various forms with a series of suffixes (the perfect), while the other uses pri- marily prefixes (the imperfect). Each also has imperative, infinitive, and participial forms. VOCABULARY To Be Learned go ^TK Gpflp $hv$ those ij j>$ interior 13 3 ms (him, his) suffix PT7 3 mp (they, them) suffix DH- 2 mp (you, your) suffix UD- colleague (plural 4*1133) "133 province nr""!? head Bftn great 2"! Reference we said N3*lftN also ^ everything tf'pS write (G) DHD passive participle .... THS imf 1 p 3TD3. let it be (imf 3 ms) 111.07 elder Dtp ask ^NE? 34 An Introduction to Aramaic FROM THE BIBLE (Ezra 5:6-10) ^ rnnr-nin n nrnci "ap - " inpi mna"oi> nns 'ann pes n wrm $f?&> ^p jhi .«to Kps Npn ^n*] 1 ? :n ^-? n " n: ? n n?i ^5 ^m »]no» pN « s nto^ w^rbJ pa .ten NrfrN m 1 ? anno "nn ,i ? w^m ^ t : : | •• • t-t: t : •• : I ■ -v: t - t t v: •• t : • r : --: Dp wf?w DpnDEJ *]»i .npp rp arp d^ed Dp Dfo ]Q :Dp .arppn ,_ t anna do nrpa •n Proper Names V)V11 — Darius I conquered Persia after the death of Cambyses II and reigned from 522 to 486 b.c.e. EXERCISES Identify the base conjugation (G, D, or H) to which the following Aramaic verbs belong. Note that some of these forms are passive and reflexive, so that their vowel patterns may differ from those of the active form or they may have a prefixed -JY! (or -518), much like the Hebrew hitpa cc el. rtott mm irnn pao ~mn 033 rnnnn : t t mm oib$& ^un rteaa nratfn rbBtin pnnn ^13 ^sa nnaaEj "sarin rrron l^tDD mna ni^na mrann nbopnn t t | : l^asriQ nazh paaa? 7. The Verb System • 35 Translate into Aramaic: (1) We went to the great province. (2) They sent a letter to the house and to the men inside it. (3) Now Darius is the head of those elders. (4) The elders say that the decree is known to them. (5) Let peace be over Jerusalem. (6) Everything is written. Chapter 8 G Perfect Not only are the Aramaic verb conjugations (G, D, and H) and tenses (perfect, imper- fect, etc.) analogous to those of Hebrew, but the individual forms are also similar, once the various principles that have already been discussed are taken into account. For example, the perfect tense, which describes completed action, uses pronominal suffixes attached at the end of the verbal root. Moreover, although these suffixes are somewhat different from those in Hebrew (but not unrecognizably so), the pattern itself is built on the same (3d person, mas- culine singular) base — ire, with the accent on the final syllable as is usual in these languages. Because the short vowel in the first syllable precedes the accent, it is lengthened in Hebrew, resulting in the form ire, but reduced in Aramaic, yielding ire All the various perfect forms are built on this base. In a few cases the first two let- ters could both have sh'vas (i.e., -re); since Aramaic will not tolerate two vocal sh'vas in a row any more than Hebrew, the first of these shifts to hiriq (i.e., -re).* Overall, the G perfect conjugation looks like this: Singular Plural 1 rare snre t : - : 2 masculine rare (or rare) •prare feminine 'rare •[rare** 3 masculine nre nre feminine rare rnre*** *The same process is responsible for the Hebrew plural imperative T\W, which results when the imper- fect prefix is dropped from nQtJT, and for the vocalization of prepositional prefixes attached to words beginning with sh'va, such as □ , ~EQ3. **Note that Aramaic uses different vowels for masculine and feminine plural forms of verbs in the sec- ond person perfect (]n-/]in-) and for pronominal suffixes in the second (p-/p-), and third (Jil-flSl-) persons (see chapter 13), unlike Hebrew, which uses the same vowels in the second person (e.g., }Fl/DFOn5 and p-/DD"EQ). *** Sometimes the masculine form is used as a common plural. 36 8. G Perfect • 37 The vowel under the second root letter (e.g., the patah under the D in many of the forms above) is called the "theme vowel" and is particular to specific roots. Examples of verbs with different theme vowels in the perfect include: n'ptDS she stopped W^ we asked "DO he bowed down VOCABULARY To Be Learned earth KinK be win / mn palace, temple ^TI one IP! give DiT G pf passive 3 p ^iT vessel ]W2 go out pD] H (causal) pf 3 ms .... pSfln many, large N'JCD heaven 8*0$ year !"U0 Reference father 3K our ancestors fcWflrQN these n% build nn passive participle HID infinitive ^35? Gf (passive) imf 3 ms ftQJT exile il^ // (causal) pf 3 ms ... v^D descend nil] H ("deposit") ifflv . . . nn^ tear down (G) "1HD servant "154? his servants TlillJ? people, nation DJ? former time ^?"!p anger (H) TD perfect 3 p TO~n reply (H) 3in they replied ^'PD 38 • An Introduction to Aramaic FROM THE BIBLE (Ezra 5:11-15) nan nQ~[jpQ naa Kin ^ ntts firn Rtf-iKi r»d0 n^ h '•nnas? sanas na'-nn urnoa ^aa n, 1 ??? n^anana'? ian arn k'qej n^ 1 ? «anna« irrn .]R»afe? fat? sa'pa tdnia 'pan ,_ t aa^a tzJnia'p nnn na#a .^aa'p ^an nain nnp nan nripi iton |o psan n-sanaiaa 'n vrfm rra "i r^wi kb 1 ? nan an^a rra n^cp do wry) 'paa -n iton ]a sa'pa ehis ian psan ^aa 'n ^"n 1 ? o^na -i .kbit Krfpu rrni o^Ta "n ttona ian nn$ K'aaa n^a :na$i n^aoo'? Proper Names 'paa — A central Mesopotamian city on the Euphrates, which established an empire in the sixth century that conquered Judah and destroyed Jerusalem, taking its leading citizens into exile. EJTb — Founder of Persian empire, which he ruled from 559-30 b.c.e.; he conquered Media, Lydia, and Babylonia (in 539 b.c.e.), granted the various nations under his control cultural autonomy, and, according to Herodotus, believed himself "more than a man" (1:204). 'nDS — Member of a tribe in southern part of Mesopotamia, where the Babylonian empire was centered in the seventh and sixth centuries (for the spelling, see p. 70). n^anaiaa — Chaldean ruler of Babylonian empire (605-562 b.c.e.), who conquered Jerusalem in 587. "l^aptp — Babylonian-born Judean who was appointed governor by Cyrus in 538 b.c.e. and returned to Jerusalem with the temple vessels. 8. G Perfect • 39 EXERCISES Conjugate the following verbs, all of which have apatah theme vowel, in the G perfect: singular 1 2m 2f 3 m 3f plural 1 2m 2f 3 m 3f singular 1 2 m 2f 3 m 3f plural 1 2m 2f 3 m 3f DEh n^c 40 • An Introduction to Aramaic Identify the form of the following G perfect verbs: Root Person Gender Number run* t : - : n#T DiT twnnn t : - : innn t : - : rncM •»3 np'pp in:; 8. G Perfect • 41 Translate from Aramaic into English: •KCTpj? DTj? NS'pD ^T« (1) .d^it? m^v buz ,_ t win< naria^j (2) .as 1 ?!? nra bv rrm ran? (3) .f\ anna by Dycp »n^>« rf?# p.$ (4) .arp'T nils'? pirafo p:u> ran 1 ; (5) .EJl.to'p ^» iwwa git wrirnK (6) .wotfa Kin tton efrn (7) .»i?1^'? K P-??. P^H Ni ? "1^13133 (8) .mn natfa naarr p. ien_ wra (9) Chapter 9 G Participle Like the G perfect, Aramaic participles are morphologically and functionally similar to their Hebrew counterparts. In both languages they act like nouns. Moreover, they look very much alike, with Aramaic's active participle even vocalized like its Hebrew equivalent (3ni3), except that the Hebrew o, of course, appears as a in Aramaic. Thus: singular plural Masculine Feminine absolute 3re " T rare T T construct 3re ■■ T rare T determined K3re T T Nrara t : ■ t absolute pre pra 1 t : t construct ■■ : t rara T T determined K 9 nrD Nrara This vowel pattern is affected by the letters PI, V, and ~l, particularly when they come at the end of the root. Thus *"lftN and DT are participles, derived from the theoretical forms *lftN and iH\ (Do not confuse these with the Hebrew 3d person masculine singular perfect, which looks identical.) Aramaic also has a passive participle. As in Hebrew, this form is characterized by its theme vowel. In Hebrew that is u (e.g., 3^3, "^"Q); in Aramaic, it is i: singular plural Masculine Feminine absolute 3TD rare construct 3TD rrara determined K3TD t ■ : WQTQ absolute T^ra |3"re construct p'ra rare determined K 9 3TD Sn3T13 42 G Participle • 43 If you have studied the text of the Hebrew Bible, you may recognize the term THS, which was used by the Masoretes to indicate places where the "written" text pTD) differs from what is to be "read" 0"lp). In such passages, many editions of the Bible print the consonants of the I'SIS and the vowels of the "HP- For example, the name Jerusalem is often printed □'pCTT, with an extra vowel between the last two consonants. The name was appar- ently pronounced C^EJTT when these texts were written pTD), just as it is in the Aramaic sec- tions of the Bible (compare the English "Jerusalem"); however, by the time the vowels were added, the final segol had shifted to the diphthong a-i, yielding the reading 0~lp) C^EriT. VOCABULARY To Be Learned there is , rY'N search IjPD D perfect 3 mp T"lj?3 Dt (passive) imf 3 ms "IjPSUT treasure T33 gold arn if ]H good Dtp silver s ]0'3 from ]Q we/our N3- there nan Reference foundations 'pKJtf build ron G infinitive n!QQ7 Gt (pass) participle rOIinQ Gt (pass) imf 3 ms . . . POSIT give HIT Gtimf3fs irrnn scroll n'pJQ expenses ^i??5 wish (noun) IIH give (G pass participle) . . . WiD find PDEJ be found rpFlEJ'n finished tbti return HD H (trans imf 3 mp) 'pTniT 44 An Introduction to Aramaic FROM THE BIBLE (Ezra 5:16-6:5) iwana ],«3 nri p.*? pi n^rrn ""! ^n 1 ?^ rva -t vwfa an 1 ; Kn$ "laatftf pj? ]n 'paaa "i nan Ka?o "h tftaa rraa -ij?arp aa to 4 ??? ^ ]n jioi .apt? tfy\ by Na'pa mirn Dbtfrpa »n^>« rra wan"? aya c© Ka?o Ehia p "h tpk rfap nanttfrn ^aaa nan njPii aya ctp topa tiv"Tl P^a jncfesi n 1 ?^ nn Kn^a rna arc? Dtp rs^d Epa rs'td Epa 1 ? rnrj rii^a -rnja a"na p] rnn Nsaai nap «j »rfaj rra aaai arpn Kpa rra p anpEni kj-ut D^tfrpa .pw_ Dbtfrra "H ^rp p ps]n "laraaa ^ EXERCISES List the participle forms of the following verbs: Active Singular m Singular f Plural m Plural f absolute construct determined absolute construct determined absolute construct determined absolute construct determined bm asn TIB 'pap Passive Singular m Singular f Plural m Plural f absolute construct determined absolute construct determined absolute construct determined absolute construct determined •703 9. G Participle • 45 □Eh TIB bw Translate the following sentences into English: .■pifnirp 1 ? rarrnn «nnp ^ ion "laanpiaa (i) .KFiain nns'p nir^ti nan n'paa (2) T ... --: t - : t - t-: v/ .nta nTau "i srv \nsbn (3) t:t t • -; ' - : T:~ vy 46 • An Introduction to Aramaic .nrj arra nria'p ■pjrp mmij (4) .^nrm nan wna rraa arn tpk (5) .Kiao'p aTp acp *]oa ]n nj?3 anna (6) Translate into Aramaic: (1) The men rose up against them. (2) Who sent the silver and the gold from Trans-Euphrates? (3) There is a governor inside Jerusalem. (4) We gave the house to them. (5) The scribe went to the city. Chapter 10 Vocabulary Although it is helpful to know Hebrew when learning Aramaic, their similarities can also be a trap for the unwary Hebraist engaged in the study of an Aramaic text. For the two languages are not the same, and one must avoid unintentionally reading an Aramaic passage as if it were Hebrew when they actually diverge. An example of this is the forms "1QK and VT, which would be G (qal) perfect verbs in Hebrew, but are participles in Aramaic. Likewise, the languages' vocabulary, though often similar, are not identical. This was demonstrated in chapter 3 by the Gospel accounts of Jesus' words on the cross, which are taken from the beginning of Psalm 22. Although the Gospel versions are virtually identical with the original, the Hebrew word DTI? (abandon) has been rendered with its Aramaic equiv- alent— p 3EJ. Vocabulary differences are evident in the very first Aramaic words in the Bible, which occur in the story of Jacob's flight from his father-in-law (Genesis 31:47). After Laban caught up with Jacob, they made an agreement, and Jacob erected a pile of stones, which he called IXhi but which Laban identified as NnHilE) ~)T. Although both phrases mean "pile- witness" — Jacob's in Hebrew and Laban's in Aramaic — they, too, bear no resemblance whatsoever. An especially common idea that is expressed differently in the two languages is "son," which is 13 in Aramaic but |3 in Hebrew. Interestingly, this is not the only case where Hebrew and Aramaic words with the same meaning differ only in the latter 's having a "1 where Hebrew has a 1 The Aramaic word for "two" (p~in) correlates with the Hebrew D?30 (remember that Aramaic D can correspond to Hebrew 2J). On the other hand, the two languages sometimes use altogether different roots. Several of these are very common words having to do with motion: 47 48 • An Introduction to Aramaic Hebrew Aramaic "come" N13 WW "go" far 'PTN "go up" ibv pbo "go down" it nm "go in" N13 bbv "go out" ST DS3 Complicating matters are words (or roots) which exist in both languages but are used differently. For example, 3"] can mean either "many" or "great" in Hebrew, but in Aramaic it always means "great" — a concept which Hebrew usually expresses with ^i"I5. How, then, does Aramaic say "many"? With a totally different word — N , 32) (which sometimes also means "great"). Hebrew Aramaic "big" btii ni "many" m mfD Similarly, the verb 12V occurs in both languages; however, it means "to serve" or "work" in Hebrew, but "to make" or "do" in Aramaic. Thus it has the same meaning in Aramaic that liDV has in Hebrew. As if to compensate, Aramaic also uses another verb — 1T?B, which means "to serve." Hebrew Aramaic "do, make" itnv 12V "work, serve, 12V ibz worship" Translating Aramaic 12V as if it were Hebrew could, therefore, lead to serious misunder- standing. The very common Hebrew verbs |n3 and Wfo also occur in Aramaic, where C© has a far broader semantic range than its Hebrew cognate, which means "put." In Aramaic it can mean "issue (a decree)," "appoint," or "give (a name)"; it also occurs in several idioms, including "have regard for" (?V UVU WiD) and "set the mind on" {'b ^3 □ , tp). 10. Vocabulary 49 In biblical Aramaic ]P3 appears only in the imperfect and infinitive; perfect and par- ticiple forms of "give" are expressed with the more characteristically Aramaic verb DiT. This root also occurs in Hebrew parts of the Bible, where its imperative (!"Qn and nil) is used both literally ("give") and with the connotation "let us." Thus Rachel implores Jacob C'33 "w ["DPI ("Give me sons," Genesis 30:1), whereas the inhabitants of Babel say: Tl? Xt? HID] ["DPI ("Let's build a city for ourselves," Genesis 11:4). VOCABULARY To Be Learned I naj man 273$ destroy (D) ^3n infinitive il'PBn all ^3 what PIO dunghill tyl message, word Q^HS pray (D) Pfe participle mp f!?^>G distant pTH leave (alone) pDEJ G imv mp P^ltZJ Reference build n» G i/z/ REUS be mn G imv mp tlPJ G imf 3 ms $)\f? Gimf3fs Rinn G Jm/3 mp }iPj7 life fTJ needed thing TiUtiiU hand T give ITT' Gt (passive) participle ms 3urnp fs Kirrnn overthrow (D) "12Q D imf 3 ms "13Q 1 property CO] expenses ^|"??5 do 12V Gt (passive) imf 3 ms "QIJIT people UV sacrifice (H) D~)p H participle mp .. 'pTIJppJQ change (D, H) TO // (/rans) t'm/3 ms . . . ^aCprT"' 50 An Introduction to Aramaic FROM THE BIBLE (Ezra 6:6-12) .rran p iiq 'ppTn ]inrraai 'sria—intf nnranar nns ^nn jiq "o?Dpi »n^ n"a Kane 1 ? khifp'? D #9 D ^ "^ ^C 1 "?^ n, 5 rrray 1 ? ^P 31 ^ n^ 1 ? ]n2J'n fidi .Rban'? n^ ^ ^k Rnaa"? «nrj!riQ rifjfi ^hjpd] aa^a .ks^d "n'p i^aai »»Q2J n^ I'lTprna prf? "H dh 1 ? arena sin 1 ? tfiati .nn ^ ia^n" i^ia Finpi nn soars Ratfrr; ,_ t sat* to ,_ t era □"© 'aai .□to'iTa 'i Krfaj n'a nton 4 ? fit; nto' 1 : "H dj;i ^to to "iai^ KrfpKi .Di?o nacp tfrri mm The phrase tttoa'? $b '"l (v. 8) literally means "in order not to stop (the work)," i.e., "not to stop." EXERCISES Find the Hebrew and English words that mean the same as each of the following Aramaic words. (Be careful — not all the Hebrew-Aramaic pairs are cognates.) English translations: arm, big, come, do, document, dwell, give, go, god, go down, gold, go out, go up, heaven, it will be, known, land, lie (noun), many, memo- randum, one, ox, peace, return, sacrifice, scribe, six, snow, son, summer, there is, this, to them, three, tree, two, weight, we, work Hebrew equivalents: ,FIT /QT ,"131011 ,-fiil ,^1'ia ,]3 ,K1'a ,p« ,13113$ XNty /10N ,nto ,inu ,i?D ,]na jaf? ana ,aET ,& ,tt $& ,fivp ^T ^\ 'P" 13 ? ' 3 ?I m >j?ttf / D 1 3P ,0*00 ,tfft>tf ,01 to $7% ,Titi ,ai2J ,31 ,f"£ ,nftM> ,fj? Hebrew equivalent English translation b^ , n , K K'lI^ n;rj]$ 10. Vocabulary • 51 Hebrew equivalent English translation m t : - nna "13 nn"i 3rn : n?i n n irri "in JH' nrr nrr nrrp nici 1 ? Dh'p nra pEU p^D ISO RIBO 52 • An Introduction to Aramaic Hebrew equivalent English translation 12V rte B?j? 2~\ S"3S T K'Dttf nc sin Tin a 1 ?^) rfpn ^pn "in Translate into Aramaic: (1) The treasures are far from the dunghill. (2) I wrote a letter to the scribes. 10. Vocabulary • 53 (3) He sent God's message to the city. (4) The head of the province is a man. (5) Leave everything there! (6) They are praying to God to destroy the earth. Chapter 11 Independent Pronouns, tpn In the Semitic languages, pronouns exist in several different forms. Some of these stand alone, while others are suffixes which can be attached to the end of words, including verbs, where they serve as direct objects, nouns, indicating possession, or prepositions, of which they are the object. Aramaic's pronominal suffixes will be described in chapter 13. The independent forms look very much like their Hebrew equivalents, especially if one allows for the sound changes already described as characteristic of each language. Singular Plural 1 naj n™ 2 masculine FUK (or nra»)* jifuk (orch^) feminine ■TOK ]fuk 3 masculine Kin ian (or |ian or ]m) feminine RTI r?$ Although 2d person Hebrew pronouns do not have a 3 where their Aramaic equivalents do, the dagesh in the D indicates that there was once a 3 which has now assimilated to the D. (The dagesh in the Aramaic forms is lene, since these letters follow a now closed syllable.) Although the 2d person feminine singular pronoun OFDISi) may appear unfamiliar, its Hebrew equivalent OHR) can be found several places in the Hebrew Bible, albeit only as the TH3.** The s : ending is also used to mark feminine forms of the Hebrew imperfect OlFpFl) and imperative ODTp). One of the differences between Hebrew and Aramaic has to do with the verb "to be." Although the root n^n exists in both languages, neither one uses it in the present tense. For that, Hebrew uses noun sentences, in which there simply is no verb: *Most Bibles show a mixed form nn]S, which has the consonants (3TD) for nn]S and the vowels CljP) for im **Cf. Judges 17:2, 1 Kings 14:2, 2 Kings 4:16,23, 8:1, Jeremiah 4:30, and Ezekiel 36:13. 54 11. Independent Pronouns, , rV'N • 55 .~^?Q TH David is king. .^an 1]"1 David is the king. Aramaic accomplishes this by using the 3d person pronouns as a copula: ."^D Kin BhiS Cyrus is king. .RS^D Kin Bhi3 Cyrus is the king. The subject of such sentences need not be in the 3d person: .Tri'ni? ian tOTS We are his servants. (Ezra 5:11) .torn 'I iTO'fcn Sin FUK You are the head of gold. (Daniel 2:38) This same construction also occurs in biblical Hebrew; for example: SSbO Kin nn« You are my king. (Psalm 44:5) Sometimes Aramaic uses the particle , rY'N to express the present tense of "to be." Like the Hebrew word ET, to which it may be related,* ^N normally means "there is": .K'QEH n'PN TPK There is a god in heaven. (Daniel 2:28) ■pn« ^ VK ®b There is no other god. (Daniel 3:29) Also like ET, 'JTN is used with the preposition -b to indicate possession: r\b -rvN vb vnrtria&i pby You (will) have no portion in Trans-Euphrates. (Ezra 4:16) Notice that Aramaic uses $b (= Hebrew $b) to negate "'TPtii, whereas in Hebrew an entirely separate word (fR) functions as the negative of ET. Centuries after the Bible was written, $b and TfK merged into a single word — Vi'b. Thus Targum Onkelos, an Aramaic translation of the Pentateuch, renders the Hebrew phrase T*"WI 733 fN DPm (Genesis 47:13) as ST 1 ? NQn 1 ?! NiHN "?03. The Masoretes used this same word, abbreviated as b, to identify forms which occur only once in the Hebrew Bible. Examples can be seen in the marginal notes on almost any page of the Biblia Hebraica or in many editions of the rabbinic Bible (Di^inS nitfnjPQ). * Note 2 Samuel 14:19 and Micah 6:10, where the word EJS may have the same meaning (and per- haps tZTN in Proverbs 18:24). 56 An Introduction to Aramaic In addition to those functions, ■'iTN can also serve as a copula (present tense of "to be," i.e. "am, are, is"). This is clearest in those passages where it has a pronominal suffix (see chap- ter 13) and cannot, therefore, easily be rendered "there is/are":* .•pn'pS K2TPK 8*7 Tl'pN 1 ? We do not worship your god. (Daniel 3:18) VOCABULARY To Be Learned exactly, diligently N31S0N priest ]13 thus NQ33 writing DH3 reign ID 1 ?? book "ISO just as ^IjPCp) rest 1NE7 T they completed l'?'??© six nc Reference plural construct o/~l3 "^D exile l"?3 joy mil dedication m3?D day DV month nT prophecy INim succeed (H) Th)L H participle mp . . . jTl'pHft establish (H) Dip Hpf3mp ID^l he finished WSTtf FROM THE BIBLE (Ezra 6:13-18) rob to 1 ??? e?tii nb0 -i bngb ]innir;i 'arisr-iritf nnnr-in^ nns ^fifi pj? ]D i^Dttfi Kim; 13 rrpri ■'an r^tia;? ■pn'p^Qi T 3 - 3 ^iim - n3 ^ ^isoa mi nrra KTttfi did ^d KntpttfriFnisi Ejinm ©lis D.uc?ai 'anfcr i^ dijc? "53 nnin .to'pQ tDini rro'pD'p no rap wn "i na rrr 1 ? nrfrn dv m; iQ"pm .nnna mi »n"?» rT3 nsan imba ^d ine?i vrfy\ K'ro 'anfcr j . _. _ t : v : t : t t v: " -■».**: t t •■ : t "t •• : t - - : t t : .neto isD ansa d^itd n «n^ m-nr ^ tr^i » 9 3iD Compare the Hebrew JTEJIQ ■^JET DN — "if you will save" (Judges 6:36; cf. Genesis 24:42 and 49). 11. Independent Pronouns, , rV'N • 57 Proper Names TIN — Last month of the Hebrew calendar (late winter). N v l i 7 — Ritual officials whose ancestry was traced back to Jacob's son Levi. 0""E — Sixth-century empire founded by Cyrus II when he conquered Media, Lydia, and Babylon. EXERCISES Fill in the correct pronoun and translate into English: .whvb Tin nrnn (l) .KHPTO R»3fc) h ut (2) .pins'? tnap jnnrr: (3) .rrm iinarD (4) .Kins'? to (5) 58 • An Introduction to Aramaic .wran »ps3 (6) .d^it? nrf?s (7) HMD DEJ (8) b^pb oars "nn'pp (9) .r?5 reu? 1 ? np-r (10) .WOBJ 1 ? P^D (11) .wna rvn'? rfan rcrfatf (12) 11. Independent Pronouns, , rV'N • 59 Translate the following sentences into English: .twin «nnp3 ^n tpk (l) j^de) "i sn^ "3rjs ian j'tuk (2) .D^rra , rrN »n^>« rra (3) .Eftn tpk »"? Nina 1 ? (4) .K'-nrr "i nns wn ^aa - )? (5) ■■ t : ■ TV v t ■-. : v ' .wnvb fvan »ra rtfr-n isoa nts Nnaa (6) t ; - : | ■ - - : t : --: vt:t - : • t •■ v/ .ri?ti -fin Kin fun (7) .^"jpn rra nynv ffryti p.$ (8) 60 • An Introduction to Aramaic Translate into Aramaic: (1) The six men did exactly as the king said. (2) We gave the rest of the kingdom to Darius. (3) The decree is in writing. (4) There is no palace in Judah. (5) She is sending a book to the priest there. Chapter 12 Prepositions Some Aramaic prepositions are prefixed to an object; others can stand on their own: Prefixed Independent in -a after nnK like, as -a between '"a to, for -b from jQ from -Q until IV on, concerning, to, against b>V with DJU under Hinn Prefixed prepositions are vocalized according to the same patterns that are used in Hebrew, -a, -3, and -b normally have a sh'va, which shifts to a hiriq (e.g., -a) when the next consonant has a sh'va. ^b^Tlb to the palace NriTHQ'? to the province When jQ is attached to its object, the 1 assimilates, where possible, to the first consonant of the following noun (e.g., D^CSQ). Several other prepositions are unique to Aramaic. Some of these obviously originated from nouns (like the Hebrew , 3S'? and ^ina): 61 62 An Introduction to Aramaic "1HK3 — From the noun "iPtf ("place"), the preposition means "after" (i.e. "in place of). Because the N has no vowel, it can drop out, leaving "ina (e.g., Daniel 2:39 on p. 87; for a later development of this form, see p. 153). 13 (when standing alone, it is spelled N13) — "Midst"; can be combined with other prepositions, such as -3 and -7 to mean "inside (i.e. in the midst) of or "into." ^ap 1 ? (notice the composite sh'va under the p, as explained on p. 19) — "Just as, oppo- site, corresponding to"; this preposition often occurs in the expanded form -1 %# b-2 ("because"). □IP — "In front of; though literally spatial, it can also be used temporally (e.g., rra~!p, "former time"; cf. Hebrew ^Zb, "to the face of). Aramaic has a direct object marker just like the Hebrew JIN. Its form is JT. (The Phoenician equivalent is spelled rftf .) Although it is common in later texts (see the synagogue inscription on p. 173 and the Targum Pseudo-Jonathan to Genesis 22:1-2 on pp. 198-200) as well as in Syriac and Nabatean, it occurs only once in the Bible (Daniel 3:12), where direct objects are more often indicated by the preposition -'?: e.g., K'Qttf rbvb tunraa rain C 7 t - : t v: v t ~ t: t ~: ■ : - Our ancestors angered the God of heaven. (Ezra 5:12)* VOCABULARY To Be Learned Reference judgment judge . . . law H in m be Nin/mn G imperfect 3 ms .... Kin 1 ? go -pn G infinitive "^HD G imperfect 3 ms ^JiT tax search . D inf . ram . . . him/his . Is suffix bring . . Hinf . . . . f? a . . . npa rnpa . . . ID - ! n- . . . . by nbyn * This same usage occurs occasionally in biblical Hebrew, e.g., ^"lEr'pi pnir'pi □ri""ptf'7 "IDT ("Remember Abraham, Isaac, and Israel" — Exodus 32:13). 12. Prepositions 63 To Be Learned know $T H (inform) ptc mp . fininp Himf2mp •pjninn be willing (D) 31] Dr pfc ms ^n^dp people US ask b$ti G imf3 ms + 2 mp . }^W (the 3 is energic and need not be translated) authorized tD^EJ Reference give 2!T Gtptcmp r^rnnn be pleasing ItD*" G im/5 ms ntt" y° u 1; appoint (D) H3Q imperative "^Q do nau G m/ IBiJD Gf im/5 ms ■niJIT G ira/2 mp priiJFI buy H]p G zm/2 ms HPFI sacrifice (D) 3"lj? D zm/2 ms ^"npEf] impose (lit. throw) !7ft~l G inf N0"]0'? wish IIT] deliver (H) C^C imperative D?$n FROM THE BIBLE (Ezra 7:12-26) Ezra 6: 19-7:11 is in Hebrew. After describing the celebration of the Passover by those who had returned from the exile and those "who had separated themselves from the impurity of the nations of the land," it announces the return of more exiles. Among them was Ezra, a priest and "scribe, expert in the Teaching of Moses," who presented a letter he had received from Artaxerxes, the text of which is given in Aramaic: 64 • An Introduction to Aramaic "1 dj?q □'•to ""aa :« 9 Q2J ri'pg "i »rn nso t«np «"jti? i ? s-pto ^to Knotfnrn& .nn 9 ^jay d^t 1 ? nna'? fcn 1 ?] Tiirp] ^^"1^^ «q^ ]p TOtoa inana to in-p epi nto^ 1 ^ yfm mi □'to^r'?] nm 1 ; to rnj?! 1 ? n ,! ?2j toto dtj? jo toi nana toi in-p rpi to] n^ni -n ^gnftr n^ 1 ? vobn "1 ian itjpiti pin n;i : nsodi K3pn rtjbor .D^rri 'n ann^ rrn 1 ? □an^N mini maa 1 ? ninm nsoi insi no" nto n nai .atomi -: t V! : ■ - : v : t -: - : t : - - : • - " I t -: ■ t •■• : na« ^m .a'pEtfT n^ dtj? a'pttfn nn^ rr'i'p n, 1 ? firrna "I k^wm .)nii?ri pft>« "n »rn ISO Nan? «-jti? 'pa^sr "i to 'n aycp a 1 © toto RnognrnR n^K to 1 ? naurr woe) n^N aaa p "i to .naurr Hanson K'attf t V! ■■ : ••-::■ t - : t v: - - | ■ ■ t ■ -: : ■ t : - : t t - : nrrby Kana 1 ? is'to vh ito Nto] twrja to 'n pTina aa'pi .Rjati th ^t to 4 ? nnnrnajja H ^ai? to 1 ? "pan 'as? ntoa naani tnw nat*] Nnn] n^N n ann nay t*?-i.n i ? ^ "1 to] .pninn ip vb p in"?^ .naa nayna Nip nri rtieok top "1 This concludes the Aramaic section of Ezra. You may wish to read the rest of the book either in Hebrew or in English translation. EXERCISES Translate the following sentences into English: .to to nn to b$w win (l) .Nto"n |o waaa Kto^ 1 ? t^to nan Nay (2) 12. Prepositions • 65 .vncfyv ]D ^33 1^0 rrirj "larpiru (3) JU>")Hl by t>)l "QVO 1 ? 3^riQ ]Q (4) .anr-m "no ^in 1 ? 'I ran*? l^linn jinani (5) Translate into Aramaic: (1) We will go to Jerusalem with Ezra. (2) The city will be built after they give tax to the king. (3) The judgment was between the king and the people. (4) They said: Leave the book in Babylon. (5) The head was in the sky. Chapter 13 Pronominal Suffixes Besides independent pronouns, Aramaic also has pronominal suffixes, which can be attached to verbs (direct object), to nouns (possession), and to prepositions (object). Although the actual suffixes can vary, depending on the nature of the word to which they are attached, the various possibilities are all similar to each other and to the independent forms of the pro- nouns. singular 1 common naj - , _ (on verbs , ]-) 2 masculine Fl» It 2 feminine tuk p- 3 masculine twn ~: Cni-, s n-) 3 feminine *m ~- plural 1 common ™m$ T 2 masculine •prais (ptUHi) Db- (P-) 2 feminine TO p- 3 masculine ian am □n- qin-) 3 feminine ■pas P- Notice the resemblance between these suffixes and their Hebrew counterparts, which extends to the use of D as a base for the 2d person independent pronouns while the suffixes have a 3 (thus Hebrew HHS and V). The exact form of the suffixes depends on the number and gender of the noun to which they are attached. 66 13. Pronominal Suffixes 67 SINGULAR NOUNS PLURAL NOUNS SUFFIX Masculine Feminine Masculine Feminine singular lc ntzSa vcbn nttfs V)?% 2m ijnBja ^rnn'pa Tjnc's * •^np'pa 2f "PTtfB •pnn'pa ■'S'HtfB "onp'pa 3m nips nro'pa Trhete nnp'pa 3f rntfa nrno'pa rrntf? * nrno'pa plural lc Rntfa agrrD'pa wntfa * wnp'po 2m (ft) -) Db"]0B (P -) abnn'pa (P -) Dbntfa (P -) nbnp'pD 2f pltfB pro'pa pH^'S pnp'pa 3m (fin- -) DfTffiJB (fin- -) annn'pa (]in -) Drinks (]in-) ann'p'pa 3f ]n-]2J'B ]nn,2js As in Hebrew, these suffixes are attached to a shortened form of the noun, such as -~02 (which is the same base as that used for the determined suffix — N"]2J2), rather than the absolute "1EJ2. Sometimes, however, they are added to irregular forms of the words. This hap- pens most often with words that refer to family members, such as UN (THIN, tWriPDN), PIN Opna), and nn (jra). When these suffixes are attached to nouns, they express possession: e.g., TP2 my house FirfrK his god riri"]in her companion This can help explain an Aramaic phrase which is preserved in the New Testament: uapavaBa = Pin fcW"ia "Our master, come!" (1 Corinthians 16:22)** Pronominal suffixes can also appear on prepositions and on verbs. The prepositions -b, JO, Di?, -133, TTb, and b"2^7 take the pronominal endings that go on singular nouns; others, such as by, "HnK, "PS, D~TjP, and ninFl, take those for plural nouns. * These are really mixed forms. The , (which is not pronounced) belongs to the ITTO, where it would have been part of a diphthong (e.g., "5p"lttf3); cf. the 3rd person masculine singular suffix Hebrew uses for plur- al nouns, such as V|T7K. ** Cf. Revelation 22:20. 68 An Introduction to Aramaic singular 1 •b ^ 2 masculine t? T^ 2 feminine vp>p* ■p"^ * 3 masculine n"? Tit^ 3 feminine tf? n 1 ^ plural 1 xf? ^r 1 ?^ 2 masculine □b'? (p 1 ?) tr^jj * 2 feminine p 1 ?* p^i? * 3 masculine Dn'p cp'n'?) tfr'pjj qin"^!?) 3 feminine P 1 ?* in 1 ^ * The suffixes for plural nouns are also used with the particle of existence 02TN) and are then translated as the subject of a copula (see chapter 11): •prf?B WTPK $b yrb^b We do not worship your god. (Daniel 3:18) ^ninin'? btt frv$r\ Are you able to inform me? (Daniel 2:26) Pronominal suffixes commonly appear as direct objects of a verb. (This same struc- ture occurs in Hebrew, although its pronominal suffixes can also be attached to HN in forms like initf.) Because the exact form of the suffix (and the verbal base onto which it is attached) varies, it is not practical to try to memorize all possibilities. Here are some examples to demonstrate what such forms look like on one verb: Perfect Imperfect singular 1 2 masculine 3 masculine plural 1 'Twrm twrurnn "Hjmrr riaimnN * These are hypothetical forms, which do not actually occur in the Bible. ** Note that the ] is doubled before the pronominal suffix. 13. Pronominal Suffixes 69 When a noun is emphasized by being placed at the beginning of a sentence or clause, its place in the sentence proper is taken by a subsequent (resumptive) pronoun. This usage is called "casus pendens" (lit. "the hanging case") because the noun is technically neither the subject nor the object of the sentence. e.g., ninD iin Nrv~i This house — he destroyed it. (Ezra 5:12) VOCABULARY To Be Learned another Hlltf l T t: T tell (D, H) Nin/mn D imperfect 1 p NITO D imf 3 ms + 3 fs PT^iT Himfip mrjrq H imf 2 mp "pOOFl H imv mp + 1 s "^OD Hinf K$f? wise "T-PD dream d7U therefore, except "\Vb word, thing il'pp time ]"ji? answer 113^ Gpf3mp tV interpretation "02 change (D) H32? Dt (passive) imperfect 3 ms rU-iET Reference kill (H) -n» H infinitive '"!?'" say "iftN G jm/3 ms "IQW G imperative *"lftN limb D ,- n buy pT inform (H) !>T Himf2 mp ^ininn be able by difficult Tp? glory "Ij- 1 ; receive ""Sp Z) zm/2 mp ]^"ip~] be angry ~|Hp issue D 1 © G? (passive) imperfect 3 mp Pronominal Suffixes • 70 FROM THE BIBLE (Daniel 2:4-13) The opening section of Daniel (1:1-2:4) is written in Hebrew. Read it in the original or in translation before beginning the Aramaic selection for this chapter. vb ]n :*ntocb now vobn niu .wra tntisi rnnsh xzbn -iqn vobn t | •• ■• t : - : - t : t : - ■• t ■• - : t : ■ |t:-: t:v - v: t : - pnajai xri?rj ]rj) jiDforp ■'•pia ffoTQi jnnrnn yniri piitfai sa'prr ^WTinn :pQRi i3i? . , ]'irjn rntfai so'?? ID 1 ? ."Qi^ ]p "p^n wato ")£■; ]irjnn ktiij "1 i~r3fc«! jjt :"id»i to^o mi? .rnqna rriEteji 'ni-ny'? iq^: Rcfrri &o'?Q ttfi'pDi ^ftp 'pd'? ^«0 »•? nanp n'po si I^P to •prjn'? ^pr Np'pp n^p -i .rrfa* "in 1 ? to'pn dtp mirr -i tpr »•? nnai .nTp 1 ^2? nrfro h I ■ t v: I ■■ t t : - t|t: - • - : ■ - t|tt:t: t | • - •■ t t : - .bra 'ppn ^ rnpin'? ip^i wafo *}¥$ vq^q Proper Names '~WZ> — This term, which originally designated the inhabitants of a geographic region, came to mean "magician"; it is used with both meanings in the book of Daniel (cf. 5:11 and 30 on pp. 126 and 137). Although it is spelled with a 27 here and throughout the book of Daniel, it occurs with D 0"]p?) in Ezra 5:12 (see p. 38). Over time, 27 tended to be replaced by 0, even in words where the former was historically correct. A similar process took place in post-biblical Hebrew; how- ever, it is only beginnng to occur in the Bible (cf. Artaxerxes' name, which is spelled with a in Ezra 7:21; see p. 64). Although the forms "ION and I7T look like Hebrew perfects, they are participles in Aramaic (compare the syntactically parallel illtf); the perfect would be "ION and IH\ "1QK is imperative. 13. Pronominal Suffixes • 71 Translate: Truro TT1Q1P EXERCISES ... . T ... finefcn )inT3 rrao nriTn □nnrraE? rra -mnnn mn '^TJ •pnrn 72 • An Introduction to Aramaic Translate into Aramaic: (1) The king will be a servant in another time. (2) The wise men answered the head of the province. (3) The interpretation will change if the scribe goes out from the city. (4) There is a word in my dream that I did not know. (5) We will tell everything except the name of our god. (6) His house is on a dunghill. Chapter 14 Demonstrative, Relative, and Interrogative Pronouns Besides the personal pronouns, there are demonstratives ("this, that," etc.), relatives (which, that), and interrogatives (who, what). In Hebrew, the singular forms of the demon- strative pronouns are built around the letter T (PIT, DN'T); Aramaic uses 1: Singular Plural Near (this, these) masculine Till i~ 1 \ "P^N (also "?» and rr?N) H J ^ feminine ST Far (that, those) masculine ~]1 feminine ~]1 masculine and feminine ]2H Third person pronouns can also be used as demonstratives: arn "H Fiefon wa'ps win That statue — its head was of gold. (Daniel 2:32) And in the days of those kings (Daniel 2:44) As in Hebrew, the demonstratives can function either as nouns, which stand on their own, or act like adjectives, in which case they usually follow the noun they modify (which must be determined): nn KTPa this house (Ezra 5:3, 12, 6:15) ni?T nil bb you know all of this (Daniel 5:22) Din'? ]riDRn Pin? thus ("like this") shall you say to them (Jeremiah 10:11) 73 74 • An Introduction to Aramaic We have already encountered the Aramaic relative pronoun ^1 ("which, that"). It is especially common after verbs of perception and communication, such as IH\ "IDS, and HQVi, and frequently introduces direct quotations. It can also express purpose or cause. rfpETlTD '1 tibyri the temple which is in Jerusalem (Ezra 5:14) ■pint )1F13« MRS) "H rUK UT I know that you are buying time. (Daniel 2:8) t : t t : "| : ■ t v: t v t . . . - . - T . T .. T The king answers and says to the wise men of Babylon: "Any man who will read this writing and tell me its interpretation will wear purple." (Daniel 5:7) You are able because the spirit of the holy gods is in you. (Daniel 4:15) □i-TON-n ,_ t anna Dtf nnp] -i . . . te^tf ]nnrras? We asked their names so that we can write the names of the men who are at their head. (Ezra 5:10) In addition to standing on its own, ,-r T is often attached to various prepositions to form a rel- ative conjunction: HS when "H ]Q after, because *1 ^DjP b'D inasmuch as, because '1 IV until The interrogative pronouns are ]Q ("who") and lift ("what"). They can also be joined with the relative '1 to form indefinite relative pronouns: '1 ]Q whoever ''I HO whatever 14. Demonstrative, Relative, and Interrogative Pronouns • 75 VOCABULARY To Be Learned father 38 plural ^C?^ destroy (H) "n» Himf3mp 'P"P'iiT H imf2 ms "Tllliiiri H infinitive iTDin'? seek nin G infinitive TlV2d7 reveal Tlbl passive perfect 3 ms .... v?. time jQT wisdom HQDn T T enter bbtt G perfect 3 ms bv H imv 3 ms bVU thereupon HH "?3p b'D secret n praise (D) PQEJ D participle ms i"Q2?Q Reference bless "pa D pass participle . . . ^"1313 power ITV133 companion "130 tell (D, H) Nin/mn Dimfl s toTjfc H infinitive !"Hnn7 inform (H) UT H perfect 3 ms IHin thus )3 appoint (D) ilDO D perfect 3 ms '30 deep p^foy establish, raise up (H) .... Dip H participle ms . . . . D'pilQ compassion fPU"! change (H — transitive) .... PDEJ // participle ms KJEJnQ FROM THE BIBLE (Daniel 2:14-24) ^« 9 n p_$ •^?'?Q t ? n'lnn'p vnti&i n? |nr jqt "h Ns'po jo n,w3 ^'n p«3 □Ip p «^3Q i ? •pprn.l i>7in sn'pQ 'ninnn rnun ^£?"o n^^rj'pi ^ nnp 1 ? .^33 "csn or Timm bwn imfr vb -i mi nn ^ a'Qttf n^s v t --.- . . :-: "-t| : : t ■ t: tt - t- : t v: 76 • An Introduction to Aramaic .■cri bmi nay jwatf n^ 1 ? n,na ^'.an pa .^a nn L ?K 9 an i ? p.$ wn n 1 ? "i an-foai annan "i aa^ iv) mbu p nnaa an'ps "n nao Kirfr ^a sin .'pa'an'? Nnaan an; •pa'pa D'pna mm : rto wefnia aim ■'aninin ^ai ^ nan 1 : arnnai anaan "n na$ na^a Tirnij n^ if? .Krijrai? ■»ao "n ^ina ^£> ^p ^'.an nan ^aj? ^a .aaninin to'pa rfpa ^ n,aa twa "n ^rn .nainn •?» ^aa 'a'an^ .n 1 ? na« p] br& .^aa vysrft nnain'? vo% .sins to'pa'? Nncsi to^a Dip ■■ - -; t : - : t : ■ t : - t)t: Proper Nouns IVntf — the captain of Nebuchadnezzar's guard. "?K 9 3n — a Jew who was taken to Babylon, where he served in the royal court, inter- preting dreams and surviving great danger. n'HTi?, ^NETft, n^aan — young Judean exiles trained in the Babylonian court. EXERCISES Translate into English: .] ,i P« N' T n Rain*! (l) ?nn tton naa }a (2) .n-sanaiaa ]a?a ^aaa nnaa naan "n ana tnso (3) 14. Demonstrative, Relative, and Interrogative Pronouns • 77 .xtptf? bv bmi (4) .st »nnp bs nriB tftn tcbn c-onn -i ^a mi ^np ^3 (5) t t : :| ■ ~ tv t : - f— r • —. t : "It: t v / .■pom nra -i tfa« ■»{?& (6) Translate into Aramaic: (1) This father praises the law of God. (2) I am authorized to seek that book in the treasure house. (3) These provinces are under a strong king. (4) They left that letter there. (5) We are giving many vessels in the midst of the earth. Chapter 15 G Imperfect The verbal system of most Northwest Semitic languages has two major tenses (or aspects) — one formed by adding suffixes to the root (the perfect), while the other (the imper- fect) adds prefixes, with suffixes used to indicate plurals and gender. (By contrast, Akkadian, which is an East Semitic language, has two distinct prefix tenses — one for the past, and the other for future action.) Having already examined Aramaic's perfect conjugation, we can now consider the imperfect. Although the vowels are somewhat different, the basic structure is the same as in Hebrew: G Imperfect Singular 1 st person an?$ 2d masculine 3FDF1 feminine ■p3FDFl 3d masculine aro^ feminine nron Plural arpa •pnron pFDn As in Hebrew, the theme vowel (the one under the second root letter) is not fixed, but can vary from root to root. Although u is the most common theme vowel (as in the case of 2113 above), it is not universal: e.g., %' (root ^3]) ]Fir * (root ]ru) vhfr. (root Efrtf) mb' (root mb) he will fall he will give he will rule he will wear * Notice that the initial ] does not assimilate in this form as it does in the Hebrew equivalent (jiT) and, indeed, in the form 7S 1 given above. 78 15. G Imperfect • 79 A very important exception to this pattern involves the verb mil (to be), in which sev- eral third person forms begin with -7: K)T}b he will be "prf? they (m) will be 7^ir7 L ? they (f) will be Thus: nn nrjwi wrf? "H no tones'? inin m_ n^ The great God informed the king what will be after this. (Daniel 4:45) The jussive appears to be the same as the imperfect, although final ] may fall off of some plural forms. To Be Learned stone pN break off "IT3 is broken off "iTSpn be crushed pp"T H perfect 3 ms p'TTI see ntn clay ^pn mountain "HO copper 2?ri3 iron 7HS statue Cb'S foot bn VOCABULARY Reference but D"Q exile 173 arm r"H breast iTTPI inform (H) UT H perfect 3 ms IHin H imperfect 3 mp . . ■piH'iiT be able by thigh rDT be able 7PD hit Nrra belly TIVQ enter 77l? // perfect 3 ms bl)T\ find rDtf H perfect Is HrDttfil leg pE? 80 • An Introduction to Aramaic FROM THE BIBLE (Daniel 2:25-36) n^2jcp'?3 not? "i ^rf? iQ^i to 1 ?!? nay jnirr ap'pa'? *ntfa "1 "tot m now to'po anp 'wn mr ?p™si nnn m xzbn •'aninirn bns Trmn - t : t t)t: " ■ t ■■ t ■• : ■ ■■ - : ■ t : v ' ~ '-. t : ■■ t I T ■ ~ waaja rb§ v$ ma »3 i ?Q i ? rr^rjrr'? jnp; fiaon vb bxti vo% m nn "3 tpk "i naorn »•? nasi .airfr m no "larana n^g*? Jnirn pn tf?a □^ rr»in nm ns^q naa .'pjnirp vobnb tntis m in 4 ? ,L ? ,L ?a na-r »n ■■ : t : - - : •• t t : : - | : : t : ~ t : ■ | •• t • • v: t : t t TTforni Thin no am m picki — v^bx »in .an pi nq^ .waft? in t : -: t - : .... T . - - | .. . T . _ jnaai ^rs m jnaa Trfap ^na m mipti era m nrpTi miwa ^pn m mi^ai 7i? KQ'p^'p nnni p'? »•? m ]n$ rn?.ann m "w rnrj nm .^orj m kspp wzlm Nspn a'pns rnnn ipn pan .pan npnm nspitj m'pna m now metei NQ^n nan .an "neb rnn nd^ 1 ? nna m »n«i .Kami t : ■ t : - : t - : - : .ns'jq nip t - : t 15. G Imperfect • 81 EXERCISES Conjugate the following verbs in the G imperfect: singular 1 2m 2f 3 m 3f plural 1 2m 2f 3 m 3f singular 1 2m 2f 3 m 3f plural 1 2m 2f 3 m 3f 130 pnto Efrti bs: 82 • An Introduction to Aramaic Identify the form of the following imperfect verbs: Root Person Gender Number tean -)DW W2$ **w f\rf? nnr>a irasn piTpsr «l?et Translate into Aramaic: (1) I will write a letter on a stone from the mountain. (2) She will send a message to the scribe. (3) He broke the foot and the head off of the statue. (4) That man sees vessels of clay which Daniel smashed. (5) There is iron under the earth. (6) We will ask to build a palace there. (7) The Judeans left copper in Babylon. 15. G Imperfect • 83 Chapter 16 Adjectives and Genitive Constructions (n) Aramaic adjectives behave very much like nouns — they have number and gender, and can be determined or undetermined. Moreover, their endings are exactly the same as those for nouns. Masculine Feminine singular absolute pTH njPTH determined Kj?Tn anpTn plural absolute n?TH lirnn determined K'pTTl* rtptti In general, adjectives must agree with the noun that they modify in number, gender, and determination; however, predicate adjectives are always undetermined. Another way in which Aramaic expresses description is with nouns. This is done by using genitival constructions, such as construct phrases in which two nouns are joined together: RrfpiJ D2J the name of God As in Hebrew, these word pairs are treated as if they were one word. Therefore, the first word loses its accent. Another way of expressing genitival relationships is with the conjunction *1 ("which, of): Knbx "T C2J the name of God * The ending for plural determined gentilics is '-. 84 16. Adjectives and Genitive Constructions Ql) • 85 Later on, Aramaic inserted a pronominal suffix (see chapter 13), which anticipates the geni- tive word, into this construction: Knbx "T Pins His name, the one of God t t v: ■ ■■ : 7 i.e., the name of God This construction eventually became almost normative in both Hebrew and Aramaic. However, it was still relatively uncommon in the biblical period, although it does sometimes occur (e.g., nH^Efag infiE) nin— "Behold, the bed of Solomon," Song of Songs 3:7). Genitival constructions are not limited to possession. They can also indicate the com- position of an object or what it is attached to: "113 ,_ T "prnBJ flames of fire (Daniel 7:9) nrq "1 ri?¥ statue of gold (Daniel 3:1) EJ3K T "1 !I?5^ fingers of a human hand, i.e., human fingers (Daniel 5:5) 86 An Introduction to Aramaic VOCABULARY To Be Learned another "H0$ field ~n dwell TPJ G participle mp T'l^l animal iTPn be able ^D" fall ^S] bow down "DO fourth »P1"| rule vbti third TT^n Reference after nrjK face (p) *]]$ finger S33SS» after (lit. "in place of) 1H3 reveal nbl G infinitive $&$? smash (H) pp"T H participle ms .... p "1.110 destroy (D) b^U Dt (passive) imf 3 fs 'PSnnn inform (H) XT Hpf3ms jnin day Di 1 bird P]ly divided nr^S rise Dip // imf 3 ms Wp] foot bn leave, abandon p3D Gt (passive) imf 3 fs plPip'ri breakable "Tin 16. Adjectives and Genitive Constructions (n) • 87 FROM THE BIBLE (Daniel 2:37-49) mzum 'B pan "i ^arn n,*? an 1 : srna'pa k*qcp n^s n K'a'pa ^j^q sa'pa na$ .sann n nE?'*n »in fuk .'jn'paa ■^jo'pBJni nnn an; a'atzj rp'rn ma rrrn naa ansn n sera n nrja KTn'pn la'pai n.aa »r*T« nrjK la'pa Dipn nnnrn K'^n nrnn n] .^a pnna Rbnas na'pn «inn niran la'pai .sins ^na ]naa t^n. nra^i nnn nr'pa lana ^pa jnaai nan pa anya^] ]m N'a'pa "i pn^raran .nn;an nnn naai nETpn «irjn arna'pa p nan pai ppntpn n^ ]in« cr 1 ? nrronai nannn ^ pnxn "1 lana »»Q2j n^ an - : pn vb n ]a« nnwriK ntbq n rnrj n nap na .»*o I pi? I p ann ap Nip n na Nana'? inin an n^ .vgrrr\ Napa Napn KEp a'pna npnm Nana nay .i3p ^rfpi Triaaw ^-P ^aa n^anana tona paa - n n Hn« .nan nn Knap np'; n prn np yrib$ n^ sin prf?$ .nasi nap 1 ? .naa , 'a , an na nrn pa nana na nr napn top pa EXERCISES Translate into English: .ann n rran pp sanas (l) .Knnanni? nana ni> tona an©" (2) tt- - -: -■: - t : - - . . \ y .nann mn pnn "an (3) 88 • An Introduction to Aramaic by$ ■'yrn tiy* (4) mbx n ncsi.'p )nacp ian (5) •2J1H1 T - ^ W& |V??$ "w% (6) Translate into Aramaic: (1) The interpretation of the fourth decree is written in the temple. (2) They fall from their feet and they pray to God. (3) We went out to the distant field. (4) The wise scribe came with a third message. (5) We were able to build another house. Chapter 1 7 Numbers We have already encountered several Aramaic numerals which are etymologically related to their Hebrew equivalents. Thus "1" is "in, which is only lacking the initial N of its Hebrew cognate 7PIN. "3" and "6" are rbr\ and TW, reflecting the Aramaic realization of Semitic th as D, where Hebrew uses CD (hence EJi'PE? and E?Jp). As in Hebrew, Aramaic numerals, which can appear either before or after the nouns to which they refer, have both masculine and feminine forms. Masculine Feminine 1 nn rnn 2 Cifi) pn Ornn) •prnn 3 nn^n T T rfpn 4 nraiHi JO"]Hl 5 scon son 6 nnp (or nt?) ns 7 Hints' rats' 8 rnan n5Qn 9 nrtp'n uttfn rntou nto 89 90 • An Introduction to Aramaic As in Hebrew, except for "1," the simpler form is used with feminine nouns, where- as the form ending with !"[- is used with masculine nouns: e.g., &*??"!& P 3 ? 4 men (Daniel 3:25) HEJ ym 6 cubits (Daniel 3:1) The number "2" has a construct form C"in), which is used in the phrase for "12" ("ltDip-in). The decades between ten and one hundred are based on plural forms of the digits; thus twenty is fHfoy, thirty is )Tl t pri, and so on. Larger numbers include PINO (100), rfjft (1,000) and 131 (10,000). (Recall that 200 is ]T1KD, as noted on p. 27.) As the determined state became the "normal" form for nouns in later Aramaic, the lan- guage had to develop another way to indicate whether a word was determined or not. To do this, the numeral "one" (If]) was used as a marker of indeterminacy. Intimations of this prac- tice can be found in the Bible: IP! D^K an image (Daniel 2:31) i~HD n"p3Q a scroll (Ezra 6:2) "in is also used to indicate multiples: PIIQS "in seven times more than. . . . (Daniel 3:19) Ordinal numbers (except for "2") end with ''-: first •'Dip second ]'3P1 * third "JT^ fourth -jrm *This form is much closer to the Hebrew 'JE? than is the cardinal form ] 1- iri 17. Numbers 91 VOCABULARY To Be Learned furnace 'pRiji music "IDT t : type ]l burn Ip" fire "113 worship nbB sound 7j? horn Hp throw ilDI Gtimf3ms Wa"]^ hear i^QS Reference live (G) rrn strength 'TO dedication i"I320 when '"D gather 2J]D G infinitive Eto^*? Dr participle mp . . fEtonp herald Ti"D T prefect ]?p rise rap G participle mp .... 'pQNj? H perfect 3 ms CpH call Nip approach Dip pay attention Ditt? ratD 92 • An Introduction to Aramaic FROM THE BIBLE (Daniel 3:1-12) •h kq'pk nsarj'? ariijngn i^aap'p stop 1 ? n'ppT nrq "i d"» inv ns^d "igrpia D^jprj ,_ i SD'pK rain 1 ? ^nirjsi wisp pasnp p»3 •K3'?o "i^-p^ □"'prj t'rrn rtj? KpiDi "^13123 D'jpn -i nq'ph bnjp'p p$j?l to 1 ?!: "l^rpn] paorn pan toot ^t toi rtij? ^p pp0n -i Rrijpa :«^dcjj? paa p 1 ? pa si: 1 ? Nap 1 : iacn ^a 1 p -i pi top "^"p^ o^rj "i vgrn. tf?%b '3? ^3] RTlj? ^jP I^DCJJ? p pQ# H? *«?T PT33 Pp p 1 ? p .KFl~Tj?^ Kp ^rijp p .top "isrpiaa o^rj "i top d?xb pap wp2V bs "p^sa tnot p^ ^"PO ^'PQ "isrpia 1 ? pptjn i3i> .p^ pna nip wdt rrn rp lap ^a 1 »tdt »3T toi rtij? p irasr -i ©3N p -i nra not? to'pQ n3 : N .p paa tp$ .RFnp? tpa pa «p aprr naD , i 'pep p -i |qt top pp 1 , n'p« i ? .Drcp tobo y"?^ iQtp p pa anna .iaprun ^©"q pp pnp .pao »•? FCpn ,_ t torn c'?^ rrfrs ^ l • : T T T : I" -. ■ T -: - V -.- : I ■ : T T Proper Nouns 133""I3i? ,pp ,pP — Names given to Hananiah, Mishael, and Azariah by Babylonian officials 17. Numbers • 93 EXERCISES How many different pairs of numbers can you list that add up to 10? + + + + + Fill in the blank with the correct Aramaic numbers: + 5 = 10 3 = 7- = 6 8 + 4 = 20 + = 2 8-3 = 1+2 = 2x3 = 8 + 2 = + 1 = 6 11 -9 = 7 + = -4 = 2 17- = 13 2 + = 5 20 x 10 = 4 + 2 = 3 2 = 56 + 8 = 10-2 = 60 + 40 = 17 + 17 = 24- = 16 19,286 + 10x2 = = 29,286 6 + 6 94 • An Introduction to Aramaic Translate into Aramaic: (1) The first man is the head of the province. (2) We pray to the God of heaven. (3) Five secrets were in the dream. (4) The sound went out from Babylon like a fire. (5) They will worship a statue of iron. (6) There are 10,000 books burning in the palace. (7) One horn is thrown into the furnace. (8) They heard four kinds of music. Chapter 18 G-Imperative and Infinitive As in Hebrew, Aramaic imperatives are based on the corresponding imperfect forms, from which the (pronominal) prefix has been removed and some necessary adjustments made for shifting vowels. The resulting forms are: Singular Plural masculine nns inro feminine •arc mro Technically, the forms derive from the jussive, which is very much like the imperfect except without the final ] on plural forms. It is, therefore, understandable, that negative commands are expressed by the full jussive along with ^K: Don't let the dream and interpretation frighten you. (Daniel 4:16) That leaves only one G form which has not yet been described — the infinitive. It is charac- terized by a prefixed -0: The infinitive frequently appears with the preposition -b and sometimes with the negative $b to express a prohibition (see the inscription on p. 172). Interestingly, the infinitive of the verb ITD ("build") occurs with both a prefixed -b (N53 t ? in Ezra 5:3, 13) and, sometimes, an additional Q (Npft'? in Ezra 5:2, 6:8). This form is expanded still further in one passage by the addition of a feminine (or perhaps determinative) ending: rPBO'? (Ezra 5:9). 95 96 An Introduction to Aramaic To Be Learned heat nTK G infinitive NTQ7 pass ptc HTN come nnK H (bring) passive perfect 3 mp Vrrn H infinitive nTTiY? need ntdn hand T very, excellent TJT bind (D) riSD D infinitive nHSa 4 ? D pass ptc mp )T1?5Q ready THI? kill (D) b®p he saves ar© 1 imf 3ms + 2 mp ... .jiaaarttfl infinitive + 1 p KSTQrEJ 1 ? hour HOT VOCABULARY Reference see ntn G pass ptc ("proper") . niTT urgent HS^PIQ because '1 ]Q go up p^O H pf 3 mp (sacrifice) . IpQil true ^ rise Dip H perfect Is H^pil anger Ta~) throw ilQ"l Gf imperfect 2 mp . |lQ~inn seven njntf seven times .... illQ© in reply (H) 3in // infinitive + 2 ms "^fT FROM THE BIBLE (Daniel 3:13-23) ^« anaa ]H»3 .lariat "^eto "p'ro'? rnrrrfp ins Tana "Ha-pna ]H&3 iaria^i ^^"n "piti ffran tjirfp "oki innana nay .aa'po DTg itit 1 •parm ]n jiq ?pao «■? riQ^prj h tarn d 1 ?^ I'n'ps iIdtpk «•? 'nbti? H «a i ?^ i 7 ]naoni j^sn mor ■•at ^ai aanp ^p iwatfn h wto "i pTii> H n^ »in jai .Rrnp* vnya ^m ala*? ]"to"irin nnys na ]naon s'p ]rn rnar 18. G Imperative and Infinitive • 97 ^ t frfpa wma "H *urft>K , n , « ]n .^rnnnn 1 ? mns nn ^ rnma •prro'n I 1 ? Rio 1 ? JH"! n 1 ? ]rn ar?r w^pa ijt pi »rnp* R712 ]in« p jcrnarefp •p-iaa .1303 »•? nnpn h tarn d^i rrfrs icrrs »"? Tnbvb "n vobn I ■ - ■-. : ■ t t : )■■ -: ■ t -; - v v : | ■ : t t - t I t t •• • t : - ip/itf 1 ? nnaa^i rrp'p nrrj "i by nyattf in twnis'p ntq 1 ? iqn] ngr "ffla/pnj to 1 ??? rfe "i ]Q nn 'paijp ^a .arnp 1 ; R"Tia 'pnis'p «Q~iQ i p iar-ntfi ^tU"Q •pan ^ap i^rinpi ■^a ^T]^ 1 ? ipon ^ ^ Rnaa ktfp nm winw naisna snip; n"td 1^8 ni' 3 *? ^ "^P^ "W Q ITiti linn^n ^a K-nar] .»"vi2 NOTE that 3d person plural verbs are often used indefinitely ("they . . ."); in such cases, they are often best translated into English with passive verbs. For example, ITPH if?$ ^"ia2 liter- ally means "they [indefinite] brought those men," but is better rendered, "those men were brought." EXERCISES Fill in the complete conjugation of the verb ana: Perfect Imperfect 1 cs 2ms 2fs 3ms 3fs fp ms fs mp fp Participles Active Passive Imperative lcp 2mp 2fp 3mp 3fp Infinitive: 98 • An Introduction to Aramaic What form are the following verbs? Root Form Person Gender Number Meaning "Qj?0 IplEJ *w >l ?5^ fc^o n ^ R3?& tztoQ K93& ktj?o "itfEJp 18. G Imperative and Infinitive • 99 Translate into Aramaic: (1) Do not kill these strong men. (2) God is ready to make a place in the heavens. (3) The hand will write a very good letter. (4) The king needs to burn this city with fire. (5) Hear the sound of music in the distant field. (6) They brought the bound scribe to a dunghill. (7) The people will save many treasures. Chapter 19 D Conjugation The second major conjugation in Aramaic is called D because the middle letter of the root is doubled. (It is also known as pa" el.) As in the Hebrew pi c el, a dagesh is used to indi- cate the doubled letter. Also as in Hebrew, the first root letter of Aramaic verbs in the D con- jugation always has a vowel. (This is not true of G forms, such as OHS.) These two features are related: since the first of the two letters indicated by the dagesh always has a sh'va, it must be preceded by a vowel. In other regards, the prefixes and suffixes are the same in the D as in the G conjuga- tion: Perfect Imperfect Singular 1 rtep %p$ 2 masculine Fl'pBjP %pn 2 feminine 'FfrSj? r^pn 3 masculine ■*j3 <*p; 3 feminine rtap ^npn Plural 1 R&ap %p) 2 masculine ■pFtep jtapn 2 feminine itfsp i^pn 3 masculine I^Sj? r^ 3 feminine rtap l i ?3i?.'' If the second consonant is a guttural and cannot, therefore, be doubled (i.e. take a dagesh), the preceding vowel is usually lengthened: e.g., rCH3 perfect, 1 singular T]3 perfect, 3 masculine singular 100 19. D Conjugation 101 As one would expect, imperative forms correspond to those for the second person imperfect, without the prefixed -H: D Imperative Singular Plural Masculine Feminine t>2p rtap Finally, the participle and infinitive forms follow patterns which, as we shall see, are typical of all the derived (non-G) conjugations: participles begin with -ft, and infinitives end with the suffix !"[-: Participle Masculine Feminine Singular ^ftpft nbapo Plural r^P° frap? Infinitive rbcp VOCABULARY To Be Learned four ID-|K body Cm generation ~B damage ^ftf] surely TIT how Hftft t : grow great (G) tWE? Reference sign HS bless (D) ~[1ft resemble Hftl behold RPI is it not (interrogative) .... N^il scorch -[in Dt (passive) pf 3 ms ^irtnn 102 • An Introduction to Aramaic To Be Learned hair 1VV) dominion ]^7^ loosen iTlEJ pass participle mp .... j'H0 Reference angel make, do 12V Gt (pass) imperfect 3ms nniJIT go out pS3 imperative mp IpS cause to prosper (H) PIPH blasphemy il'pEJ three DPF1 FROM THE BIBLE (Daniel 3:24-33) Trnaaa tma aiap won nhph inna ^n hdri nau dp nspq n-aapana rn« I • : - : t t ■ : t t : | t -; - t : •■ t )t t : - tv : - I ■ -v: ]nti nyanK inn? nin na» an nasi nay .so'pa wra? : ^?'?o'? pas] pi? npp yim .yrb* i±? nan fc^'ani )irrn -rvN »"? ^nrji tnia Niaa p'pnD an^ 'n 'ninna; iar~rni7i Tjtzra nnntD nowti nay Rrnp* tnia •pntf'p n^anaina n"ii3 uby vb .vera Nia p iarnnri jti'n pp.ncz? •ppaa paa .ins^i ipa "1 p'nn'ps I""!? n ^l "^."P^ nay -"Horn K "? Ji'ntfNl "i^ p'natzjaa ^ "i )inoB)a hit -i "ni-na;'? nrtj?'] nat^a n'po -i laa-payi n^a pnpo paa? 'I aa; 73 "i aa;a a 1 © ■»aoi .jinn 1 ?** 1 ? ]rfr n^ pa 1 ? |na : D': ^1 l^ 1 ??* Tin* vb ,_ t pap pa nnyrr b): nrrn iaa _ pnyi ijafta npntf 'n pnn^ ^ ni ?E? .paa nanaa iaa-na£n nara nnna'? rten sa'pa paa .nan? yrm n^ "l rtik .safer fiarp'pp :tuna paa p$n "i K'aaa; pa 1 ? to'pa n-^anaiaa .tit ii nv n]apci apu rnapa nrnapa .ra^n naa nhpk "»ar mv t: t ■ -t:t: - t : - ■• : - | ■ I • - t : tt v: ■ ■ : 19. D Conjugation • 103 EXERCISES Identify the form of the following verbs which appear in the Bible in the D conjugation: Root Tense Person Gender Number ^W ^£33 •pDi^ nrmctf lino i^an rosa'p n~nn rten t»: R^QQ ^hq Fran T ' - 12)20 ]^3pn ^Bj? 104 • An Introduction to Aramaic Root Tense Person Gender Number ]^W : nrmcd ■pima n '? ! ?P'? l frQ] tnto'D t>r\T rna natfa Fill in the full conjugation of the verb bin ("damage") in the D: Perfect Imperfect Participle 1 cs 2ms 2fs 3ms 3fs fp lep 2mp 2fp 3mp 3fp ms fs mp fp Infinitive: Imperative 19. D Conjugation • 105 Translate into Aramaic: (1) They bound his body from head to foot. (2) Surely, we will destroy four provinces. (3) The king gave dominion to his son for eternity. (4) How wise you are to leave the rebellious city in peace. (5) She is praising the judge, who grew great in this generation. (6) I searched in the treasure house, and there was damage there. (7) He will tell us the interpretation of your dream. (8) The wise men said to loosen the hair from my head. Chapter 20 H Conjugation Semitic languages have four basic verbal conjugations, which are generally identified by the letters G, D, H, and N on the basis of their form. (The Hebrew terms pi c el, hif% and nifal correspond to the vocalization of the 3d person masculine singular perfect of each con- jugation; according to this system, the qal, which literally means "simple," would be called pa c al.) We have already considered the Aramaic G (chapters 8, 9, 15, and 18) and D (chapter 19) conjugations. Since biblical Aramaic has no N {nifal) conjugation, that leaves only the H. Its general pattern is the same as that of the other conjugations, except for the obvious presence of the prefixed -71. Since that usually has an "a" vowel, the conjugation is sometimes called the hafel in contrast to the hifil. However, unlike Hebrew, the initial il is usually retained in Aramaic participles and imperfects. (It typically elides in Hebrew so that TbttfilQ becomes T^tpQ and T'ptp'nri becomes T'ptp'Fl). Perfect Imperfect Singular 1 no'ptfn o^nsj 2 masculine whm CD^prrrp 2 feminine 'ntp'ptfri ptp'pBJnn 3 masculine tD^n vbm\ 3 feminine u±>m CD^tDHFl Plural 1 2 masculine 2 feminine 3 masculine 3 feminine MEfrtin xv±>m Efrtim '[Ep'pEJnFI Having said this, we should add that the -PI does sometimes elide in biblical Aramaic, pre- cisely as in Hebrew. (This may be due to Hebrew influence.) 106 20. H Conjugation • 107 As was true with the G and D conjugations, in Aramaic as in Hebrew, the imperative forms are based on the imperfect, without the pronominal prefixes: Imperative Masculine Feminine Singular a'pcn ''tp'ptfn Plural lefrtfn nubvn The prefixed -PI, which is characteristic of this conjugation, is also retained in the par- ticiples: H Participle Masculine Feminine Singular ^HD ncp^HQ Plural ftp'pBJnQ l^prra Finally, the H infinitive is, like the D, characterized by the ending H-: VOCABULARY To Be Learned Reference tree fr» last prjK behold t>§ trouble 03N disturb (D) bni vision TTPT fear (D — scare) ^m seek shade (H) bbQ magician Cb~in food |1TQ foliage "Si? reach NCDft 108 • An Introduction to Aramaic To Be Learned holy ETnp grow rn~i wind rn~i under Hinn Reference enter bbti G participle ms 7JP G participle mp jvi) H infinitive n'pwn'? * branch =131? bird 1BR& height m~l beautiful TB0 FROM THE BIBLE (Daniel 4:1-9) trip ^pi • , 33 L prjn^ •'Efto. nm] .^nrnn nnn □'xi .Tina nnrj "igrpia m« rV?i> ]H«a ."amirr Ka^n -ie?b ,_ r 'paa 'a'an 'pa'? ^mp n^nb ortD I ■ : t | ■ - ■■ ■-■-.: : t : v - : ■ v t ... - . - t)t t t :- : •• : pna nin :b i^linn n^ FntfEn ]irpnnj? naa no» arfprn ^nto] K'aann sa'pm ^a fti-ip iti^ mi hi "n^ asa nsNticp'pa nae? "i bmi -Dip ^ ■jja I'P'Hp fn 1 ?*? nn -n nr-p rua «j K'aann an n^Eftp'pa trrtwi Ttinnj? mn nm 'Ejtn ntm .ins pntfai mn h -o^n "im .n"? 03» t6 n toi " -: " t - v: - -: I t ■■ t t t t : pray .vm&? Baa 1 ; nam] rc^a nan .waft? nam] rana Ris i'tn mai .» 9 Q2J nan "["it 1 TTiaum tna nm ^an Trinnn .na n^d 1 ? lirai tbbj t - : ■■ - : ■ | t ■-. : ■ : - : t t - .. . . . .. T . | T . - Proper Names "l^NSa'pa — The Babylonian name given to Daniel (see Daniel 1:7), which means "May he protect his life" in Akkadian. *This form is explained on p. 119. 20. H Conjugation • 109 EXERCISES Identify the form of the following H verbs: Root Tense Person Gender Number p i ?00 rnnn'p rnrjrq n'pBEJn i3pnn n T 3 T ! ?n i ? R^tin •pininn npnna ptann n^n naisnnn ^atfrr itann itfrn nnsspn nrosn'? tyttfnp 110 • An Introduction to Aramaic Fill in the full conjugation of the verb H~)p in the H: Perfect Imperfect 1 cs 2ms 2fs 3ms 3fs fp ms fs mp fp Participle Imperative lcp 2mp 2fp 3mp 3fp Infinitive: Translate into Aramaic: (1) The sound of the horn reaches the heavens. (2) Behold, the wind is smashing the vessels under the palace. 20. H Conjugation • 111 (3) The hair grew like foliage. (4) The bird brought gold out of the tree. (5) The word of the king will frighten the holy men of Babylon. (6) The magicians fear that God will make Daniel ruler over them. (7) The scribes said to bring the message before God. Chapter 21 Weak Verbs Weak verbs contain letters that cause phonological problems when they occur in cer- tain situations. For example, some letters cannot take certain vowels, while others tend to assimilate with adjoining consonants. Because the "weaknesses" which cause problems for these roots typically have to do with the pronunciation of specific consonants, many irregu- larities are common to Hebrew and Aramaic. Some letters encounter problems when they occur at the beginning of a root. For example, when the letter ] is preceded by a vowel but has none of its own (i.e. when it has a silent sh'va), it often assimilates to the following letter. Thus, the imperfect of the root "?B3 (fall) includes forms like ^S 1 (compare the Hebrew ^S 1 ). Since the imperative is based on this form (without the pronominal prefix), it frequently has no 3 at all (e.g., NC from KKJ3 and IpS from pD3). However, Aramaic is not as consistent in this as is Hebrew. Thus, the 3 remains in several forms of the verb ]D3, such as ]FUFI and ]y)T (the dagesh in the D is lene) and frequent- ly in H forms (pS3.il, p'pnn, etc.). Alternatively, it is possible that these forms are actually sec- ondary developments. In other words, rather than having been retained, the 3 may have ini- tially assimilated and then later returned through a process of nasalized dissimilation. This process can be seen in other Aramaic verbs; for example, the H infinitives npD3.n and n?VT\ are derived from the roots pbo and bbv respectively (see chapter 22). If a similar process was at work with |H3, the imperfect would have developed in something like the following stages: ]F\T ->■ ]FP (assimilation) ->■ ]PiT (dissimilation/nasalization) A similar development takes place with the root DT. Its imperfect, 2 masculine sin- gular form should have been tfTFl, but that apparently became iH"in, with the , assimilating to the ~I), and then UlTl, as the first "I dissimilated, becoming a (nasal) 3. In the same way, the 3 masculine plural form 'pin" became ■pJn3\ This process also lies behind the name of the Mandeans, which comes from the root VT and is used for a gnostic group that claims special religious knowledge (cf. iH30, "knowledge," in Daniel 4:31 and 33 on p. 120). 112 21. Weak Verbs • 113 The verb VT demonstrates another characteristic of the Northwest Semitic languages, namely the shift of initial 1 to \ (The root was originally VII.) Sometimes the initial , is lost altogether, as in the infinitive and imperative (e.g., Ill; see p. 49 above). However, under other circumstances, the shift to ' never takes place at all. Hebrew examples include hifil and nifal forms such as T^in and ~h% both of which come from the root *f?\ Analogously, Aramaic has H forms such as UrTin and TWlVh from the roots DiT and IH\ t t : Gutturals and the letter "1 often cause nearby vowels to shift to an ah sound (i.e. a patah or qames). We have already seen examples of this in the G active participle ("ION). The same phenomenon is responsible for D participles such as PQ2JQ, G perfect forms like iTDI? ("I made"), and G imperfects such as jHliyn. "Hollow" verbs have a long vowel — either i or u — instead of a middle consonant. Because their roots do not have three consonants, these verbs inevitably encounter problems fitting into "regular" conjugations. (This clearly does not apply to verbs such as mn, "tell," in which the middle 1 or , is consonantal.) Hollow roots have no middle letter at all in the G per- fect (e.g., HO©, "I ordered"). However, the G participle often developed an N in the middle position, apparently in an effort to make the verb more clearly triliteral — e.g., DNP (he rises).* (In some verbs the ketiv has an N but the qere a \ e.g., jT^/'pDfrn in Ezra 7:25 and l'H'H/l'HNtt in Daniel 2:38.) The long middle vowel does appear in the imperfect, where the pronominal prefix takes a sh'va (e.g., Dip'; contrast Hebrew, where the pronominal prefix takes a qames, reflecting how that language treats short vowels in syllables preceding the accent). Final il and N are not as distinct in Aramaic as they are in Hebrew. One of them may appear in forms attributed to roots derived from the other, such as K~I0Q from the root ITlCD and vQnn from the root tibft. This blurring also occurs in the suffixes used for feminine and determined forms, which should be il- and K- respectively, but are not consistently distin- guished. This ambiguity is compounded by the tendency of N to become quiescent and even fall away. This is evident in the root WIN, the H conjugation of which, as we have seen, has forms such as the infinitive iTrPrP and the masculine singular third person perfect , rvn, where there is a ' instead of the expected N. As a consequence, the following forms are all derived from initial-N verbs: The same form occurs in the Hebrew passage Hosea 10:14. 114 An Introduction to Aramaic "QiPlFl (Daniel 2:24) — from the root ~QN in the H conjugation, with the N acting like a \ which then "becomes" a 1. jft'nft (Daniel 2:45, 6:5) — an H passive participle from the root ]0K, where the N has become and remained a 1 (just like Tf H). 100 (Ezra 5:11) — the N in this G infinitive has dropped (so too in the infinitives NnQ and KTQ); the same form occurs in Daniel 2:9 with the N intact ("1080). Final il verbs (which were originally final '') follow patterns familiar from Hebrew, except that the perfect, 3 plural suffix is 1- (e.g., 133, "they built"): Perfect Imperfect Participles Active Passive singular 1 c rn? KB$ ms 1133 m? 2m 013? Kpn fs rrn rrn 2f TP23 ■ppri mp fB P-? 3m nn t : R3?1 fp 113? 1135 3f ran t : nJin plural lc *T3? kb? Infinitive kbd 2m pra? ]laari 2f |n"53 •pnn 3m in P 3 ? 1 3f ma t : i:»i Imperative "B TB Geminate verbs (those in which the second and third root consonants are the same) are handled in a variety of ways: (1) Sometimes these roots behave as if they were perfectly regular (e.g., ^"pD', ^SSj?, ^pn, frtog, ^iq). (2) Often, the repeated consonant appears only once, sometimes without any indica- tion that it is doubled. In those cases, the vowel pattern may shift (e.g., IHH, H3, nm, 1DP). 21. Weak Verbs 115 (3) In certain cases, the doubling (gemination) one would have expected in the final letter of the root shifts to the first letter (this is most common in H forms of the root pp~l, such plJJQ, plFl, and Ip^D). VOCABULARY To Be Learned cut down "113 dew bfi be able ^PD heart nnb reach NCDft descend Hil] Most High ty want !"QU be wet mH Dt V3BSP Reference but Q-Q in order that n~Ql (IV) living ''PI give liT Gtimf3ms IPTST food ]ira flee "PU enemy "IIJ call tnp greatness 13*1 be appalled DDE? ntpoieipf nnriEJK root Ehtf FROM THE BIBLE (Daniel 4:10-19) i3Fi Kfpn* na hqk pi *op .rim k 9 oej ]q sr-rp i^i vfinn 'ima rpiq run p ran'? .uaia^ R»oeJ toi ipnEJ KJnisa Tiiehizl di.3 Tn'nnn p anrn r^>i> tD^tzJ "i « 9 T »n "pirjr "i iij n 1 ? nrprp nrn ra'pi |iatf Mtf^ row "isrpina xzibQ ran rno so^n nn .nan 1 : was? ^ p'pi Mft$ nia'poa 116 • An Introduction to Aramaic , 3ninin'? tneja yby Kb rechn 'iran ^a -i ^aj? ba int* RTtfa "isawto 1 ?? DDintp^s -fiSNtii^pa nap "i bmi yi$ .^a ■penj? ■prfpu irn ,_ t 'pna rnRi .•^na" b$ kissi NO 4 ?!! "fiswtfBba .-iqki vobn n:v .mn nucs I t -j ~ : ~ " : ■ t : v - - : : •■ - t : t : - ■■ t t ~: t t ^qq"! ran 'i rem ^ to 1 ™ .T-iub metei xzhn .now "isswtfefra nar ..... T . . T . — . . T T . | T T . .. . . T - t : - - : : ■■ ■■ t rrai ,r l aa'po win Fqa — ma nvn inn 'rrinnn ,na vbbb p'tai watf*? .wattf'? ncpai rcn ^rna-p EXERCISES Identify the form of the following verbs: i?oo? Conjugation Tense Person Gender Number a^c? in ]^ Q Pl^ •p-iairr r T 'pa'prr ybsiFi n^n 21. Weak Verbs • 117 Root Conjugation Tense Person Gender Number nnin DEJ nnprra *M??$ IpB in» ^n "OK? r H^ n fiu^r ^ Translate into Aramaic: (1) Then the magicians knew that the king heard the dream. (2) I am able to bind the body on top of the mountain. 118 • An Introduction to Aramaic (3) Wisdom is like a burning fire. (4) The interpretation damaged all who heard it. (5) One man builds a house, and another man smashes it. (6) My hair is wet with dew. (7) The interpretation of the dream changed the king's heart. (8) A holy one came down when he heard the word of the Most High. (9) They cut down the tree that reached into the heavens. (10) We went to praise them. Chapter 22 Unusual Verbs There are several common verbs with idiosyncratic forms. Some of these have already been described. mil (to be) — As noted in chapter 15, imperfect 3d person forms often use a prefixed -b (thus Kirn, firf?, ]'irf7). Although in biblical Aramaic this involves only the verb ilin, the prefix is more extensively attested in later dialects, including rabbinic Aramaic, Syriac, and Mandaic. ~\bn (go) — Participles are conjugated in the D and H C^HO and fO^nD). Imperfect and infinitive forms are kept in the G conjugation, where they act as if they were derived from a hollow root ("pi"!) with no middle consonant nor any evidence of assimilation — thus, *^iT (he will go) and ~]T)d7 (to go). by (be able) has several different forms. The imperfect follows the pattern by, 73FI, although some Aramaic passages have the same form (7'DV) as is known from Hebrew. Participles can be based on either by (}by, Vby, ?lby, by) or bns (}bm, •p'pro, rfajs, bra). pbo (go up) — Whenever the initial D has a silent sh'va, the b assimilates to it. This happens in several H forms, such as IpDil (lift up!) and pOP! (be lifted up). In the H infinitive, the double then dissimilates, resulting in the form i"!pO].r! through a process of nasalization: npbon -+ npon -> npoin It T : - It T - It t : - ^JJ (enter) — The G participle of this geminate root has two forms, with the ketiv showing both "?'s (rbbv and VbbV), but the qere only one (rbti and VbV). Nasalization sometimes occurs in the H forms of this verb, yielding the per- fect, 3d person masculine singular form bxilTJ and the infinitive TlbV^Tl, which exists alongside of il^il. 119 120 An Introduction to Aramaic VOCABULARY To Be Learned bless, kneel (D) "pa strength, army b'JJ drive out TIE) day DV dwelling Tno lift ben pass away (G) iTT# mouth DS end riKp return ~2T\ Reference living , rt pass by ^n add rjcr h pass pf 3 fs nstrn month PIT because p p understanding iH_30 eye ys enduring D*P greatness 13"! seven HIDE? root Khtf restore (H) pn H passive HpST! twelve ICi? pFl FROM THE BIBLE (Daniel 4:20-34) pas junaa YriEhtf ma Titam n:t>n rca now n'o© p nra tzrnp ns^q ntn m I ■-. : t : - ; :t - : ■ : - : tt ' - t : t - : I ■ ■ t )- t : - t -; • : nrn Din fttfiN p p-ic? I 1 ? ^a^o ^ ncpp p ineja np .inair iraej ^nni ,_ i inp ,_ i 14? •^"'pif yehrv ]T$ nippi "pip^o "^ wps 'ram ^ppo mr^ ina w^-n ,_ i tiitthtf pstzto'? no» m .Piaarp »32r ,_ t p^ nej3n mata ^u o^tf tt- ■ ■ : t I - : ■ : : ■ : - ■ : ■ •■ : • ■ | - : t t-j : - : tt- ■ - ^rj naisn Ka'pa rqi? .mn "^rp ^33 p arna'pa tovi ^ "itoip-in prr? n^'? .•?EU R»B0 P ^pl VObft DBS NrfvO ? ; D'7a JTa 1 ? Firm TON ^ Nrm ^33 NT! N"I -: t- : | • It: t : - ■■. : t : ■ : - ■• : - :~v: t-j ■ t : - v t ■ t *na nrn Din ]pp? ^b Mfttt pi "pa rnr nrna'pa tsa'pa "isrpiaa pas ~f? ,_ i p^i *$$ ma'paa w$>j» n , '?2j ,_ t nri ,_ t "u? p^i? •ps'pn? p-p rpas?i ppp ra^ rrai 1 rapbi .srsxop rra^j n s dcb ^tsai -no nej3n id wtub) rrn .nan 1 teur t-: t- t|: • : - : ■ •• : ■ t-j ■ i t t -: I ■ t -: - - • • •• "1 nn32? Kzbu t^i nana t^'pi airr; ^ pnpi n^tpa woe) 1 ? pi> "i^pan^ tfTi Nm» nam N'nc 'rna i3r rraxaai nm in or nnia^ai d^u p 1 ?© mubv t : t : - - : t : t-j •• : ■• t ■■::■: t : t •■ : - - t I t : t - t : t np .npnri Tna'pa bv) 'bv mn*; 'inp «pr na ?rnpiJ nn tn 1 ? na^. p , n , s 22. Unusual Verbs • 121 EXERCISES Identify the form of the following verbs: Root Conjugation Tense Person Gender Number ^v bvn nirj 1 ? nrj ipon nj?oan p'pno "^np TC t : ■■ : "»: "»n ^r l^n? 122 • An Introduction to Aramaic Translate into Aramaic: (1) The priests drove the governor from the city. (2) The animal's dwelling is in a tree. (3) At the end of the day his strength passed away. (4) The magician lifted his hands and blessed the silver statue. (5) I returned to bring the letter up to the top of the mountain. Chapter 23 Syntax Aramaic syntax differs from that of biblical Hebrew in some important ways. For example, we have already pointed out that Aramaic's definite object marker (JT), which is cognate to the Hebrew JIN, occurs only once in the Bible (Daniel 3:12; see p. 62). More often, definite direct objects are marked with the preposition -b: VGbn DTg bmib buy] . . . fn$ pJ? Then Arioch . . . brought Daniel before the king. (Daniel 2:25) Many times, however, definite direct objects stand alone, without any indicator at all: . . . an NDans ttttfir "i efaN ^3 t : t T : - : tv: t Anyone who will change this message. . . . (Ezra 6:11) On the other hand, the relationship between nouns and adjectives is very much like that in Hebrew. Adjectives follow the nouns they modify and must agree not only with respect to number and gender, but determination as well (just as in Hebrew both must have or lack the definite article). However, as in Hebrew, this applies only if the adjective is attributive, that is, if it describes the noun; when it is predicative, they need agree only with respect to number and gender: N3~) to 4 ??? the great king XI frO^D the king is great Similar rules apply to demonstratives. When they function as adjectives, they normal- ly follow the noun they modify, which must be definite (i.e. determined). However, demon- strative pronouns need not be directly adjacent to the noun to which they refer, and the noun may or may not be determined: 123 124 • An Introduction to Aramaic ]^« Rpaa these men ■p-QjI 'p L ?N these are men N'""Q3 j ,L ?N these are the men Aramaic sentence structure is, overall, far looser than Hebrew's. To be sure, there are numerous cases of the familiar verb-subject-object word order: fcO'70'? n™ I'lnTnia We inform the king. (Ezra 4:16) However, it is more common for the object to come first: 'Etatfi . . . mm by vobn mti sajns - ■ : : - t: - - : t t : ■ The king sent a message to Rehum and Shimshai. (Ezra 4:17) Frequently, it is reiterated by a resumptive pronoun: *rva 'i vaoai jiari ^ap . . . ^« ansa Those men — the flame of fire killed them. (Daniel 3:22) Sometimes, the subject comes at the very beginning of a sentence: rcs'pa Kntognrnwi'p dT&n) bv rnn m-jK oro . . . 'mm . . . ran - ! Rehum and Shimshai wrote a letter concerning Jerusalem to Artaxerxes, the king. (Ezra 4:8) Finally, both the particle ''JT^ (functioning as a copula) and the verb mil are often used with Aramaic participles. Although in such situations the participles are technically predicate nouns or adjectives, the resulting verb phrases come very close to comprising com- pound tenses: e.g., •pn'pB K3TPK »"? TO 1 ?** 1 ? We do not worship your god. (Daniel 3:18) mil ntn to 1 ?!? n^ Oh king, you were seeing. (Daniel 2:31) 23. Syntax 125 VOCABULARY To Be Learned finger U3$J| splendor Vt wine ~lQn wear till 1 ? meal UVb interpret (D) "IttfS read, call rr\pfa-]p Gt (pass) imf 3 ms . . . "HprP thought }TX-\ find PD2? Gf (pass) /?/ 3 fs JTOPlEJn drink iin® U« Reference wood purple disturb (D) bU2 Dt (pass) ptc ms . . 7il3na taste Drcp understanding Jna.Q wall ^n3 banquet ^HEJQ illumination IT PI] palm (of hand) 02 change (G) rati Dt (pass) imf 3 mp . i2FlET ruler (over 1/3 kingdom) . . 'R^ri FROM THE BIBLE (Daniel 5:1-12) rrnTi'p &oan Di?03 no^ "isw^a .nntp *oarn an art? -as? Ka'po "i^i^pa ]imizh Dbtfrra 'i iton p tpok naanDina pan "i Nsp5i sani ">i$rt? Dbtfrra 'i »n^*j rra ^ iton ]Q ipan "i kith Tjwa rrnn p«3 .]Tn3 ■pasa npa] nnrttf na .warn njjn *brs warn Naoai warn "nbvb inasi I T : : v Jt - : t - : - - t: - : tt t:: - tt: t: - : t - : - ■■ t ■■ -_ : .nana •>! pit 02 ntn Rs'pai ss'pQ 'I iton ^na ^ ]anai 12ft* t ^ .HrrfcD rt?vrt? Tna aa'pn »Tj? .naftrn^ Trr^ii Tilae} tiVt to^n ps wr metei nn nans mjr "n efta ^a ^ ^aa "tran'? -mi to 1 ?? nar •p'pna ^i aa'pa •trarj ^3 •p^ p_$ •to'?©': arna'pna "•n'prn tfaV wins ^nann wsft? "laaytf'pa no'po p« .aa'pn'? nrTirfp pito'di »"ifpo l p «ana .n^r wneta n , a t ? sa'po ^a ^ap 1 ? Nro'po .Trfw pti TTn 126 • An Introduction to Aramaic ncprp nQDm rrna "^3$ •tivrrt ra | , 2? , ip pri 1 ^ nn -i ijrns'pDa 13? tp$ ■^3$ na'pn pijrctoi pisiEnn ni "^3$ "1^5*1323 Rs'piM n? nrqnpn "pri 1 ^ to'pn ,_ i ^'.ra n3 nnDnttfn •pp'pn issp ^aoi n-rrp nn n %# bz> .vo% .nijrp rntfai nprr bmi ]jps ."Kwzta'pa nop nto EXERCISES Rewrite the following sentences twice, expressing the direct object differently each time: .R»aQ-]n ns? vobo (l) (a) (b) .bwii IPs Kzbrj 1? (2) (a) (b) .vwQsb s-nm nap (3) (a) (b) 23. Syntax • 127 Now rearrange each of the original sentences above twice, beginning with a different word each time. (la) (lb) Translate each sentence into English: (1) (2) (2a) (2b) (3a) (3b) (3) 128 • An Introduction to Aramaic Translate into Aramaic: (1) They drank wine with the meal. (2) The big finger wrote a message. (3) The golden vessels were found in the temple. (4) The priest called the people to pray. (5) The queen wore gold on her head. (6) The strong thoughts frightened me. (7) The wall of the house is wood. (8) The splendor of his wisdom went out to the whole land. Chapter 24 Passive Conjugations The G passive participle (e.g., Trp), which was described in chapter 9, is only a small part of a far more elaborate system, one which is significantly more developed in Aramaic than in biblical Hebrew. There one finds a qal (G) passive participle (e.g., "^"Q) as well as two passive conjugations — the pu c al and the hofal. These latter two really belong to the pi c el (D) and the hifil (H), as is evident from the fact that they share the characteristic features of those conjugations — the doubled middle root letter of the pi c el and the prefixed il of the hifil. Where they differ from the active forms is in their vowel pattern, for which both use u-a. These conjugations are, therefore, called internal passives of the pi c el and hifil. Although biblical Hebrew's qal has only a passive participle, some anomalous forms have led scholars to suspect that at one time it too must have had a full internal passive. Whatever the facts about that, there are internal passives for all the major conjugations in bib- lical Aramaic. The G passive is characterized by the theme vowel i. It is found in both the participle and perfect forms. (There are no imperfect forms for any of the internal passive conjugations in the Bible.) G PASSIVE Perfect Participle Singular Plural 1 totd RHTD singular masculine ITD 2 masculine FQTD ■pnziTD feminine rnTD feminine TDTD ]FOTO 3 masculine 3TD DTD plural masculine ■p3TD feminine mTD rats feminine nro 129 130 An Introduction to Aramaic The D passive resembles the Hebrew pu c al, except that the participle has a patah (a) theme vowel instead of u. Since Aramaic rules of pronunciation call for this vowel to be reduced to a sh'va in all forms of the passive participle except the masculine singular, that is the only participial form in which the active and the passive differ. D PASSIVE Perfect Participle Singular Plural 1 n"?3|p Kfraj? singular masculine *75j?l? 2 masculine Fl'pBjP ■pFfrajp feminine n^app feminine , n'?3|p ltf?3i? 3 masculine ^ ftaj? plural masculine r^po feminine rtaf? rtoj? feminine l^pQ The H internal passive follows the same pattern in the perfect as the Hebrew hofal, while the passive participle is identical with its active counterpart, except that the theme vowel shifts from sere to patah (when it shows), precisely as occurs in the D passive. H PASSIVE Perfect Singular Plural 2 masculine no^EJil T feminine , np i ?0rj 3 masculine CD^tdn feminine nEfrtfn nEfrtfn Participle singular masculine to'pcriQ feminine Htp'pEJriO plural masculine ftp'pttfnQ feminine '[Cp'pEJno As in Hebrew, the initial vowel in the perfect may be either a short 5 (PI) or u (i"T). 24. Passive Conjugations 131 VOCABULARY To Be Learned glory Ijr throne NO*"D master N"IQ greatness ID") rise Q"! G pass ptc ms W~] H (causative) ptc ms . . D'HQ Hitpolel (reflexive) pf2 ms HQQinnn write □©") be like mti be finished d?ti be low (H causative) ^2© rule (over 1/3 of kingdom) . NHpH Reference purple lacking TOPI proclaim (H) HD count (G) mn remove (H) 711H divide DIB chiefs T^-PI weigh bpD FROM THE BIBLE (Daniel 5:13-29) p "i burn vm na« :b*?rb "ioni vobn nar .ns^q mp ^jn ^ ]H«a I ■ ... T :: - •• • t : -t: t : - •■ t t : - t|t: - ■-. - • t | • - ncDrn Tja •prfpa rm "i f^ nyp©] .Tirr p "ok ns^d "Tpn ,_ i -nrr; »b pnjtfai •pip" mi rnrp -i k^sd "otj? ^n jipi .ija nnanton irvrp ■ntis ^an -i t^jj nunc mro .rmnrf? Nn'pn -itfa fxo vfr\ "wrin 1 ? | ... ... . | T -: ■ ■ : ■ T -; - tt -; - : t : ■ - : | • -; T t : ■ - -.. t : Rrfrrn 2J3'?n Rains , 5ninin'7 rnttfai tn.pa'? Nans ^sn ]n ]jpa ."lttfaa'p tones'? r*tj?$ Nan? :&opn DTj? ~m] ^'.n my paa .fi^n Njro'pna n^a-paa 1 ? nn 1 ; jnjri ann-n ariia'pa w$>jb «n^ topn natj; .mining wnetei snK mn ,_ i ."rrtalg jo r'prn iirj R»D_iy ba rip. am -i wrar\ p\ .ja$ razb en H3i >stfD mn Nan mn m dhd mn Kau mn -n 'pop Kin 132 An Introduction to Aramaic dv Fna*?] t"ib wtf;» ^aa jai .naa ran rnj?*] nnia'pa ko-d p nmn nnrn rna'paa *$v sn^a a"'?© -i ijt n ir uaair napa K'atzj bum »iej wnrn ^a ^aa 1 ? n'patDri n 1 ? "fflawfca nna na : N] .rr^ a^pir nair "i p^i wzJa» Tanp rnin nrra h jwwa'pi naai-inri K»atd una ^i .Furr nn ^a n ^ap waKi njjn abna Nana »ami Ksaa tdk't] lina rna; tnan Taa-iam nasi t : - : tt t : : - tt: t -: - : t : - ■• t •• : I : I * - t t : - I t t ::-;:;- : Nanai kt n^ti TrtaTj? ja psa .nna© )^t a'pi patp Kbi j^n n 1 ? n ^rna is;a nan .ranai ^pn Naa Naa :a , ©-i 'n Nana nam .a"© - ! nan t : ■ - : t : | ■ : - )■■ t t : t : t : — ana .Tan marram nn^pn — ^pn .no^m n i rro'?a an'pK naa — aaa ^n 1 ? ^5^1 n-sura'pa -iaa paa .anai ma'p raTPi n i rna i ?a nana .ania^aa annn an© mnb "i Trfrj? mam NaianN Proper Names Ha — Region in western Iran from which a powerful kingdom emerged in the sev- enth century, but was conquered by Cyrus of Persia in the sixth century. EXERCISES Identify the form of the following passive verbs: Root Conjugation Tense Person Gender Number (G, D, H) n^tp yi? t n'rap Eh.aa rreto 24. Passive Conjugations • 133 Root Conjugation Tense Person Gender Number (G, D, H) 3*1^0 wto nsgn roTT I'^tprj TO pTrc nofe 'rrn ■?na i^TP none T'W? DbeJ 134 • An Introduction to Aramaic Translate into Aramaic: (1) The letter was written in Jerusalem. (2) He is raising the palace on the mountain. (3) The throne was lowered from the heavens. (4) The master's dream was interpreted there. (5) The great gods are praised on earth. (6) They asked him to bring the silver to the big palace. (7) Daniel became ruler, and his glory was like a king. (8) God gave greatness to the province and to its governor. (9) The earth was finished in six days. Chapter 25 Reflexive Conjugations Just as each major conjugation has an internal passive, so can each theoretically be made reflexive by adding the prefix -nil. Hebrew normally does this only for the D ipVel) con- jugation (for other possibilities, see pp. 32-33). Aramaic, however, uses this prefix as a pas- sive for both G and D.* We have already seen examples of verbs in both of these conjugations (e.g., in^nn, "ijsanri, nrnnn, and naanri). There are some clues that can help determine which conjugation is involved: (a) Spelling — whether the middle root letter is doubled (D) or not (G) (b) Etymology — whether the verbal root normally appears in the G or D In any case, these conjugations follow the same general principles as other Aramaic conjugations and their Hebrew equivalents: (1) Perfect forms use the standard suffixes. (2) The prefixed -il elides in the imperfect and the participle because of its location between a prefix (pronominal in the case of the imperfect; -0 for the participle) and the following H.** (3) Infinitives end with the suffix i"K (4) Initial sibilants ( £J, 2), K, 0, T) switch places (metathesize) with the D of the pre- fix, which becomes ED (a sharpened dental) when the root begins with IS (a sharpened sibilant) and 1 (a voiced dental) when the first root letter is T (a voiced sibilant). *The Bible may contain a trace of this for the H conjugation if the words pWHR D'D^D in Ezra 4:13 are redivided to read pTjilHO , 3 i ?Q ("my king is damaged"), as some have suggested. ** Compare the Hebrew definite article, which elides when it is preceded by a preposition (e.g., I"P3rQ— >-rP33) and the prefixed il of the H conjugation both in Hebrew and sometimes in Aramaic (see p. 106). In talmudic Aramaic, the n also elides. 135 136 An Introduction to Aramaic The actual forms are exactly what one would expect: Gt Dt Singular 1 rfrcppnn rfrannn 2 masculine n'pcjfprin n^annn 2 feminine Ttepnn ■'Fi'pannn 3 masculine ^CDprin ^snnn 3 feminine rtepnn rtannn Plural 1 RfrBprn rcfannn 2 masculine ■pn'pBjPflri •prtannn 2 feminine in'pcDpnn jn'pannri 3 masculine fttpprn i^annn 3 feminine rfrtpppnn rtannn IMPERFECT Singular 1 •?cppn« Iannis 2 masculine ^pnn ^snnn 2 feminine l^cppnn l^annn 3 masculine ^Qprr ^anr? 3 feminine bcjjpriFi ^snnri Plural 1 ^pprq ^3nn] 2 masculine •p^tppnn l^annn 2 feminine 7'ptpjPnri ftannn 3 masculine l^tpprp ■p^nrr 3 feminine f^tpprp" ftanrr PARTICIPLES Singular masculine ^pnn ^annp feminine n'pcppriQ rtannn t : - : ■ Plural masculine •propria •p^anno feminine ] i ptppriQ ] i pnnriQ INFINITIVE n^tDpnn rfrannn 25. Reflexive Conjugations 137 VOCABULARY To Be Learned satrap ]2"]ipn^ be faithful (H) ]QR H pass ptc jOTIO lion nrw pit 3i3 night bb pretext rbv receive (D) b"2p statute Wjp assemble (H) E?3~! please "IB© Reference petition 1^3 take counsel (Dt) 3IT hundred H^Q suffer damage pT3 distinguish self (Dt) nil chief ^10 above tibv twenty p(M> intend ntfU establish (D) Dip Z) infinitive ^?*p r negligence bti FROM THE BIBLE (Daniel 5:30-6:10) I 1 ]© in? ^n^'pa ^3p KHia sin-ji tf/jto ^"PS i^^s 'rap N , T '? , ' i 73 n3 pfcwi nt^o tWBTitfDS 1 ? srns'pD ^ □"prji tfr-n □"]£ isp P1D1 T^ prf? "1 |*in3 ; Q ~rri ^n -i an^n p-io pap »$>#! .arnD'pD ^33 p"? "i Kirj rp bmi p$ .pn Nip ^ vobtx »art? p 1 ? prr pa R^neJnsj nrapp rrtDiJ Npni rrn trrFn rm -i pp p a^apTO] k s 3-io by nsgriD pn bmib pspp pi> p3 tirj ^a-i^n^i \no~\o pa .N?pp p p .Tit>j; nroncn »•? fttf ^3t ktf p-no h ^3p ^3 nmvnb ]by vb nbu -: - - : : ■ t t t : | - •• : ■ •■ )t: t t t : - : I ■ : t t t ■ pp rpsttfn ]p Kp p bmib nstzp p "i pna p« K'pa p» :n L ? ppa ]3i top ^ rtinji ]b$ WBystiQ%\ k 9 3~io p$ •^n'?^ p3 Krnnsi « 9 3s~n2jn»i ritd^d ono bi> loirntt ."n ra^ ns^d tivn tt - : - t - :: - : -- : - t : - -it - t : ■ ■ :•: \ • : t : t : - vt : t Tjao fn'p pp pv -rr tfaji pa p ]p ip mcr -i p -i top d$ rra'p 1 ? hq ni3 rntfrfp p ,_ t Kara Dpn top ]p .Knpa 33 1 ? Kprr top .83113 DEh tfPT! VCbft H3T ^3p ^3 .Klltf! vb "T D13T 138 • An Introduction to Aramaic EXERCISES Identify the base conjugation and form of the following Aramaic verbs: Root Base Tense Person Gender Number Conjugation (G or D) ^rrno ^onn j;^ 1 ■pnrin n«fc»rip ■f ! inaQ* s Ttn ^snta nprr pOTH irownn nrontfri "nutT •pransr OTnn n^np - : 25. Reflexive Conjugations • 139 Root Base Tense Person Gender Number Conjugation (GorD) •pEtonn R3FffiJ1 n").!.2nn «H?ri' ^nnn isninn Translate into Aramaic: (1) The wise father wrote a statute at night. (2) A strong lion fell into the big pit. (3) The satraps assembled before the throne. 140 • An Introduction to Aramaic (4) The message was received in the rebellious city. (5) Surely, the faithful priest will be pleasing to the people. (6) The governor sought a pretext to kill the men. Chapter 26 Other Conjugations Alongside the major conjugations (G, D, and H) and their passive variations (p ec il, pu c al, hofal, hitp ec el, and hitpa c al) are a host of others. Many of these are familiar from Hebrew. For example, since hollow roots cannot occur in the D inasmuch as they do not have a middle root letter to double, they often use the polel conjugation, in which the final letter is doubled, as if to compensate for the lack of a middle letter: e.g., CQIIQ (masc. sing, participle from the root UT)), "raise up" The related ^etpolel conjugation is used for the geminate root CftEJ: □Qin% "be disturbed" This word illustrates another phenomenon, which became characteristic of later Aramaic through a process that is only beginning to be evident in the Bible. We can see it by looking closely at the biblical passage where DDi""0K occurs: (Daniel 4:16) Hirj !W? DDintp^ 1KN2?tp'?3 PTC0 "1 bmi p$ Since bWll is the subject of CQinp^, the verb must be 3 masculine singular perfect ("then Daniel . . . was disturbed"); however, one would have expected the first letter of a perfect verb to be H (for hit-polel) instead of N. A similar anomaly occurs in several other words: rnwriK (Daniel 2:45) Root "1W; perfect 3 feminine singular n'*"G*"iN (Daniel 7:15) Root 11*13; perfect 3 feminine singular ''*"iE?N (Daniel 3:19) Root il'EJ; perfect 3 masculine singular nO")" 5 ^ (Daniel 3:1) Root C"p ; perfect 3 masculine singular with 3 masculine singular pronominal suffix '"lPlij! (Daniel 4:11) Root "TO; imperative masculine plural nnN (Ezra 5:15) Root nil]; imperative masculine singular 141 142 • An Introduction to Aramaic All of these forms would have been expected to begin with 11. When they were written, the let- ter H must have weakened to the point that it was not heard. This weakening may also account for the vacillation between il and N in final weak roots as well as in the feminine and deter- mined endings (see pp. 26 and 113). Over time, then, the H conjugation became an N conjuga- tion (i.e., ^afel rather than hafel); analogously, Gt became Htpe c el rather than hitpe c el, and Dt became Htpa cc al rather than hitpa"al. To be sure, this process is only beginning in the Bible, where a handful of initial-^ forms exist alongside others with initial -11. (Thus the perfect 3 masculine singular is given as rJft'jPN in Daniel 3:1, but FlCPpn in 5:11, and the perfect 3 fem- inine singular is rnttflN in Daniel 2:45 but DlWrn in 2:34.) However, it may be more wide- spread than we can tell, since other examples of these conjugations could be obscured by the elision of the N with the participle's prefixed -ft or with the imperfect pronominal prefixes, so that we cannot identify all the words which belong to initial -N conjugations with certainty.* The form TF1278 (Daniel 5:3-4) also has a prefixed K; however, it does not occur in place of a 11, since the word means "he drank," which is normally expressed with the G con- jugation of 115127. That N must, therefore, be regarded as prosthetic (see p. 15), rather than sig- nalling a different conjugation. Several other peculiar forms suggest that biblical Aramaic may have had yet another conjugation. These verbs begin with 27, which appears to be a prefix attached to more famil- iar 3-letter roots: nT?? save (Daniel 3:28; cf. vv. 15, 17; 16:15, 17, 21, 28), root: 3TI7 NT© complete (Ezra 6:15), root: R2T bb^ti complete (Ezra 4:12; 5:3, 9, 11; 6:14), root: bbl 'p'pftiOft laid (Ezra 6:3), root: 7l\ passive Both Akkadian and Ugaritic have causative conjugations that begin with 27 rather than H. It is, therefore, reasonable to connect these words with a distinct conjugation. However, there are several reasons to regard them as Akkadian loanwords rather than evidence that there was a functioning shaf c el in Aramaic: (1) the paucity of such forms, which are limited to a mere handful of roots; (2) the fact that the causative conjugation normally begins with a prefixed -71 in the Northwest Semitic group of languages, to which Aramaic belongs; (3) the ample evidence of a hafel (and ^afel) in Aramaic; * ITpiTlttfN (Ps 76:6) may demonstrate the same process in Hebrew. 26. Other Conjugations 143 (4) the presence of D in one of these words ([vliOQ), where the others have a 2J; this is especially striking given that the same root occurs several times in the hafel (viz., byn in Ezra 5:14; 6:5, and rton'? in Ezra 7:15); (5) the , in 2T$, which is etymologically derived from the Semitic root DTI?. Akkadian is unique among Semitic languages in not representing V (although its presence can often be inferred from the shift of nearby vowels to e, another mark of Akkadian influence), so this form must have been taken over from Akkadian rather than generated within Aramaic. For all these reasons, biblical Aramaic appears to have borrowed these verbs directly from Akkadian. They are, therefore, best regarded as loanwords from Akkadian shafel forms rather than evidence of an Aramaic shafel. As a result of these separate processes, we can identify three distinct prefixes that can be added to roots in biblical Aramaic in order to make them causal and thus list three sepa- rate, if related, causal conjugations: il hafel N 3 afel EJ shafel VOCABULARY To Be Learned prohibition IDS; exile 172 living '0 when '"D speak (D) 77Q close "130 go up pbo make prosper (H) PI7H formerly ^?"!j? approach DID Reference also *]$ bottom rniHK sign JIN be evil U)VQ is it not (interrogative) .... $bri innocence IDT damage il^nn angel 1$?Q flee T« women V01 piece f"]p accuse f*"lp ^ON pay attention □!?£? □ , 2} sleep H32J 144 • An Introduction to Aramaic FROM THE BIBLE (Daniel 6:11-29) xb^w 11.? win «QT3 nnbri por] rinp 4 ? ^ Nnn? crczri "i ut; hs ^'ni ^rpprn itfnn ^k K-nna pa -Jin no~ip ]p "ni? «in -t pnp ps nnbg cnp rfco'po no^ pi? to'po n-rp po$] nnj? pftn .Pin*p« anp aia ^^.n 1 ? ■^ap ]n i 7 p'pri far ib ctf]»] n^ ^3 p nu^ "i czjaa 73 -i nosh nos^ t^o "I on_£n hq m t | Kn'pp icrap. :-ojn to 1 ??? nay ?Krnn$ nia*? Kp-jn 1 . to^p tiit -i Krrfra *n ]p "i ^p p to'pp pp pMjn ijif pK3 -^n ^ p$ .w?3 kqv3 nrfrri ppr; nptp "i &no$ by) djjgd to'pa f^ aft? »■? fro^o ^ wap "^8 tpna pK3 . , rrfc>^ cz?*q waft? vn0 sn'pp hs to^p □"pir xf?n "i n^ id^i ^ "i cnsi hp'? p -t to 4 ??? in fco'pp'p pMjn |2« rrrnrn .^anr© 1 ; »in n 1 ? rf?s n^ n p^ :^ , n'? ipn] Ns'pp nar pi^i; rna nFDtfi n^n'? Rs'pg pt$ p« .waa os *«? nasi pn nay ^p 1 ? ^"p nppprrt 7t$ Krirng H naq 1 ? rfpnaprn rap 1 ; fco'pp p«3 ^rp n^ n'ps naa ,_ t p^K &P p 1 ??* nny bmi tbwrfc ion] fro^o ."0 V&u 1 ? xsbn tb^n Ks'pp a:? ^Np ps .&CO* 1° p^rs 1 ? rranp 'dt ppp -t pnp ^3 'aftan ito ktiyh*! as nagi nr^p rf?p "n^ ^n^ "ni^ n^tp min ^s'pQ p«3 .m.ni? rfp n'pnrj ^s'pa fcr$ *}$) 'b ]Q"n "i rn ns^pri ^ ^nrj ^di ^3? ]Q ^ s n poni .»aa ]Q npo^n 1 ? iq^ mnns na'pi burn "i 'ni^np ^dr "t -fix «»"iaa rrrrn rs^q nn^i .nnbwa ttt:~ ... t : |- -- : I"' t - : \ • ; - : t : - - -: - •■ t .Na^ 1 ]ioo i ?P w?"i» ^?a ri^l "1 ^QtU? ^? t ? ans ^s'po ©1H1 1HK3 ^ s n T ^ nn^ nip ]p i^rji lirj 1 ? "hid'pq |q'?2j 'pd? ,_ t ortp cto 'Dnp p Itw inui areJQ ^annn s^ "i nmD^ i-d 1 ?^ □•"pi nti ^nps «in ,r i l ■ t ■■ t : ■ ■■ : - - : ■ t ■ •■ : - \ ■ : t : t|- : t- t t v: niD'pQa n?Kn nn ^ 9 a-n .^niniss i: ]Q t 7^ , n T '? n , ro ,r i ^^i^ni « 9 Q2J3 26. Other Conjugations • 145 EXERCISES Identify the root and conjugation of the following verbs: areto pon jtt; r n ?5P HOT ^SIPl Kaner rpao linriri ipa ^wn •print] mn irrns rtiq ina« nnin ratfnn iqq nainn artzr 146 • An Introduction to Aramaic HP IT □HIT riQEj nijjfi warin sin] W •prnpnp jnirr nPH.n FiDQHnn Explain the grammatical difference between the following pairs of forms: □H 1 (Daniel 2:44) and DIP 1 (Daniel 7:24) nbyyj 1 ? (Daniel 4:3) and rton'? (Daniel 5:7) ^H3nQ (Daniel 5:9) and rfjnanri (Daniel 2:25) 1QN (Daniel 4:11) and ION (Ezra 5:15) nrrnn (Ezra 6:4) and t 73T«llFi (Daniel 2:44) nxmr\Q (Ezra 4:19) and TDSJTin (Ezra 5:8) 'p'pcppno (Daniel 2:13) and rfpBJpnrfp (Daniel 2:13) ninnri (Daniel 2:34) and rnwriK (Daniel 2:45) Translate into Aramaic: 26. Other Conjugations • 147 (1) The father saved his son from the wild animals (lit. "of the field"). 148 • An Introduction to Aramaic (2) The scribe completed the work on the fourth kingdom. (3) The king assembled the people to praise God at night. (4) I sought to leave the city when the king issued that prohibition. (5) I went up on the mountain when a lion approached. (6) We are closing the statue's mouth. (7) The Jews succeeded when they were driven out into exile. (8) The living God spoke in former times. Chapter 27 Daniel 7 The biblical texts in the preceding chapters have all been changed from the original, if only to reduce the amount of new vocabulary they require to a reasonable level. In this chapter, we will read Daniel 7, the last Aramaic passage in the Bible, exactly as it appears. All the necessary vocabulary can be found in the glossary at the end of this book. The chapter describes Daniel's vision of four animals, which symbolize a succession of four empires. The history of this theme is discussed in "The Theory of the Four Monarchies: Opposition History Under the Roman Empire" by J. W. Swain in Classical Philology 35 (1940) 1-21, "The Four Empires in the Fourth Sibyl and in the Book of Daniel" by David Flusser in Israel Oriental Studies 2 (1972) 148-75, and the commentaries by James Montgomery (International Critical Commentary; New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1927), Louis Hartman and Alexander Di Leila (Anchor Bible; Garden City, NY: Doubleday & Co., 1978), and John Collins (Hermeneia; Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1993). mseto by FJ0K1. 'W) nm d?n bmi bm 1^0 "\^^%b rnrj mm 0) .-ids ybn 2WH nro KQbrj p.K3 Translate into English: ybtl EJK"I is understood by some scholars as meaning a "complete account"; others think it refers to the "essential contents." There is a similar Hebrew phrase in Psalm 119:160. NOTICE the -b prefixed to "iHS^'pD'p, which expresses possession, just like a construct phrase. The name itself is Babylonian (Bel-shar-usur) and means 149 150 • An Introduction to Aramaic "Bel guards the king." In Daniel 5 it occurs with the N following the 27 (verses 1, 2, 9, 22, and 29); that kind of inconsistency is to be expected in the translit- eration of a foreign name (compare our spellings Eileen and Ilene). List all the verbs in this sentence and identify the form of each: Verbal forms Root Conjugation Tense Person Gender Number Translate each of the following words into Hebrew: mn PJ27K-) lrrca a 9 027 -irn i73iN nm wb'b nv , im:i mn nm now ^wn mr (2) It-: t ~ : ■■ : - -; - t : ■ ■;•.■: ■•-: ■■ t - t : ■• ■ t ■■ t x / •N*I p «l 1^27 nq: ]q ]$bo p-nn ym uan^ (3) .ien_ Na: 4 ? Translate into English: 27. Daniel 7 • 151 NOTICE: The meaning of □!? is apparently temporal ("at the time of) as in Daniel 3:33 and 4:31 pi) 11 DJp, see chapters 19 and 22). "Wind" (im) and "sea" (D?) are common elements in ancient Near Eastern sto- ries about primeval time, including the creation story in Genesis 1 . What form are the following verbs: Root Conjugation Tense Person Gender Number nis? nm rnn 1)^9 |t^ ]rno The subject of ]rnO is ; although that noun does not have a formal feminine ending (il- or D-), the verb's feminine ending makes its gender clear. "lQISi is equivalent to the Hebrew form The phrase W)l HTn means 152 • An Introduction to Aramaic p rfrm rrsa ions -i fi? rrin mri n*? -itfa «i paa] rn*o «rr;cn : f? (4) nrari nn« nrn n»i (5) .n 1 ? itp bjmj aa'pi ncppn efts© p^a-i ^ jmtjhi Taip n 1 ? pa« pi rratf pa nasa pr'pjp n'pni napn in -ia&/?i ai 4 ? m "l ia*]N paa nbi naaa nroj i-iri rnn nrn nn insa (6) .mto ica "^ .n 1 ? yry t ystyti) wmb pp'*n nyanKi rraa ^ ^ia Translate into English: Translate the following words into Hebrew: (The singular occurs in the Garden of Eden story.) mrvb 12?3 27. Daniel 7 • 153 What form are the following verbs: Root Conjugation Tense Person Gender Number liana rfrtM napn rra-r a^r What is the subject of DQPrt in verse 5? This passage includes a series of ordinal numbers: "first" arna-ip "second" nran tt : ■ (for "third" RTP^n, see Daniel 2:39 on p. 87.) "fourth" rPiPrn (see verse 7 below) In post-biblical Aramaic, the "I in sa~Ip ("first") assimilated to the Q, leaving the form Nap; thus the three subdivisions of the talmudic tractate ] , P , T] are called: Nina saa «i?-2SQ Naa sap saa S"ina is an adjectival form, which developed from "insa ("after," see verse 6 and p. 62), itself a composite of the preposition -a ("in") and the noun "1HS ("place"). 154 • An Introduction to Aramaic REppm ^now rfrrn rp^m nvn n»i wy? -ima mn nm mi -inte (7) t ) ■ ~ : ■ t : ■ : t • : t t - : t ■■ -: - T : ■•:•.•: " - : "T t : - t x ' meto kyii nosi rr^rm ninci hd-toi rtos pin n^ ^na "i vm jott t : - : ■ : t:t - : - : tt: )t v: - t:t|t:;- - -.- ; - ■ | ■- • : T • - "i™ pi? i^i ^'ppa rriO ^srfoi? (8) .n'? itix yrtp) ppdij? p snip bs p pp t>$) ppQ*]g p n"j|PiJn^ «njQ-jj? twnp p rfrrn pp3 rijp'pp rpp? .p"Q"l V?QD D31 SI W"lp3 NEJ3K TJJ3 It::- • - : ■-. T T :|- : T T -: Translate into English: NOTICE the suffix on NTiT (verse 7), which functions adverbially; it may be a remnant of an old accusative ending. The adjectives ^HQ^ (verse 7) and P08 (verse 8) are both feminine singular. What are the number and gender of: Number Gender p-pl (verses 7 and 8) RTirn (verse 7) 27. Daniel 7 155 What does the phrase XVT\ ^SHCQ (verse 8) mean? What part of the sentence are the following words in verse 8? DS NOTICE the word order in the various clauses found in these sentences. What form are the following verbs: Root Conjugation Tense Person Gender Number n'rrn n 9?1 iraBfcj bsntpo njp*pp n-jjP^n« . Since this Gt verb is in The subject of il"lpi?rilS! (verse 8) is the perfect, which normally begins with Tin, the prefixed N must have weakened from an original 71. iljpnft and rfott (verse 7) are both the same form, albeit in different conjugations. To what conjugations do they belong? What form are they? 156 • An Introduction to Aramaic NOTE that the root of ilplQ is ppl. The (doubling) dagesh would normally be expected in the p rather than the 7; Hebrew has analogous forms (e.g., 20\ which comes from the root 220). ?b "iDS) VTVp expresses possession ("it had 10 horns"); this chapter of Daniel contains several other examples of this construction: 7b "103 ^ I'Ba (verse 4) means e]ir ,_ T i?n"l^ I"?? 7 s ? (verse 6) means _ }2~)2~) 7\b br\Ei "1 y$ (verse 7) means n$n lyfcn iin abrp ngn 1 ? nrr ■pnv p"run Ttn jio-p "i 7i> rpirj nrri (9) pari 1:3 113 ,_ t 77a (10) .pi7 tu 'ni'pa'ps tu ,_ t faraE) n^ois Kpa iqjj? aarr w"i |^p" : "niQ-ip pan iani naitfqitf; □ , s'?s ^ 'nionp p .urn? psoi Translate into English: List all the passive verbs in this passage: 27. Daniel 7 • 157 List all the active participles in this passage: NOTICE that 3ST is in the perfect; the hiriq is the theme vowel. The phrase "2T? W"T means "the court sat." What other verbs can you find in this passage? Verb Root Conjugation Tense Person Gender Number Identify the suffixes on the following words: pO-p (verse 9) Pl^n 1 ? (verse 9) i rri'?a'?3 (verse 9) •prrnE? (verse 10) $?1 (verse 10) This passage, which is widely regarded as a poem (note the parallelistic sentence structure), is one of several throne visions in the Bible (compare 1 Kings 22:19, Isaiah 6, and Ezekiel 1, 3:23-34 and 10:1, as well as 1 Enoch 14:18-23). "The ancient of days" (por pTU?) is God. 158 An Introduction to Aramaic "n iu rrin nm rWjaa ty~ij? m «nn-i^i r£>g ^P. ]a psa rr*in nm (11) rnim wnrn "iwtfi (12) .ats'ia nip"'? rn , rn riQjp'a "Dim «nrn rfrtpf? .]nin pT nr fin 1 ? raw ] ,9 nn rD-jRi )irat Translate into English: "?p is equivalent to the Hebrew word DTCDP and nim are both passive forms; what are their roots and to what conjugations do they belong? Root Conjugation rfrtDp nrnn What form are the following verbs: Root Conjugation Tense Person Gender Number n^Dp "HVO 27. Daniel 7 • 159 Identify the suffixes on the following words: MZfrl nam t t : : What is the difference between KPT!! (verse 11) and WVfU (verse 12)? JOT and f^i? are synonyms; the phrase ]1V) ]QT should, therefore, probably be under- stood as a hendiadys, meaning "a time and a(nother) time," i.e., "two times." pTiu ivi mn nriN tf]» ins tratf ^i? or nw n"^ "ira rmn nm (13) I ■ - - : t -: ■■ t TV! _ : T - : "t - : • -; - t : ■■ : v : ■•-; ■■ t v / tfocu? bb) la'poi i|P , i jia'ptf rrrr n 1 ?] (14) .Tin-ipn "TriQTpi rrcpp trai" Translate into English: What is the function of the suffix on tt^b (verse 13)? The ^ corresponds to the final H on the Hebrew form il'r'?, which cannot be a feminine ending since that invariably carries the accent; note the Hebrew form b^b, which occurs in Isaiah 16:3. The phrase iTjn ilHN (verse 13) means . What is the relationship between ID'pQ and PJiTO'pft (verse 14)? 1 60 • An Introduction to Aramaic What form are the following verbs: Root Conjugation Tense Person Gender Number nna TOO T rnip ^nnnn |^^'?D , Tnmjpn What is the subject of: Tnn-Jpn (verse 13) •prf?^ (verse 14) The phrase EJ]tf "IDS is famous, but problematic. ~Q is used in Aramaic, as ]3 is in Hebrew, to indicate the possessor of a quality or the member of a class, in this case "human being" (©]$; cf. ttfi3i$ ]3 in Ps 144:3). The equivalent phrase (uioq xoij dvGpcorco'u) occurs in the New Testament, where its meaning is widely debated. For further discussion, see "The Son of Man" by John Bowker in Journal of Theological Studies new series 28 (1977) pp. 19-48, and "The New Testament Title 'Son of Man' Philologically Considered" by Joseph A. Fitzmyer in A Wandering Aramean: Collected Aramaic Essays (Missoula, MT: Scholars Press, 1979) pp. 143-60. bv ra"!p (16) .^rjrr; '($n •nirn una Kin bwn na$ Tin nnsn^s (15) .rjainirr: a' 1 ?!? ntpsi ^ -ip^i ti;i bs bu nap tun^i rca^] ^q^jp ]p in .ritjk ]p •pan": pa'po rucnB rana pas n tffcnii ratti yb$ (17) .^p'pr Dbr nin nnbu iv wrtobo 'paorn yftbv "&ip Nrro'po inap'n (18) 27. Daniel 7 161 Translate into English: NOTICE how the phrase bt&Y] i1]N functions as an appositive to the pronom- inal suffix of TH") in verse 15, resulting in the meaning: "my spirit — me, Daniel " The reference to Daniel's spirit as having a sheath (iin3) suggests a distinction between the body and the mind, which emerged only late in the biblical period. What form are the following verbs: Root Conjugation Tense Person Gender Number nrnp R#s$ "^-piT p%>\ N s DNp t - -: |t 162 • An Introduction to Aramaic NOTICE how the weak middle letter of the hollow root Dip has been "strengthened" to an N. Although n*"P0N (verse 15) clearly belongs to the Gt conjugation, the fact that it is perfect demonstrates that the N is not a pronominal prefix (the form is 3d person feminine singular), but softened from it, making this an Htpe c el form (compare the hafel conjugation, which sometimes weakens into ^afel). ■p3N (verse 17) literally means ; in this sentence, it functions as a copula, as pronouns often do in Aramaic and later Hebrew. 'ETIp (verse 18) is a term with a long and important history. In ancient Canaanite texts it refers to gods; however, the Hebrew Bible uses it primarily for angels (e.g., Psalm 89:6 and Job 15:15). Jews later applied it to themselves. In the Middle Ages, the Latin equivalent (sanctus) was used for "saints." (The English word is derived from the same Latin root.) For further reading on this term, see "The Saints of the Most High and Their Kingdom" by C. H. W. Brekelmans in Oudtestamentische Studien 14 (1965) 305-29, and "The Identity of 'the Saints of the Most High' in Daniel 7" by G. F. Hasel in£zMca56(1975) 173-92. m/tr rfrrn jrto p rntf nirj -i Nrrirrn wrrrn bv Ka^p rraa ps (19) bv) (20) .npsn pr^-m mwtfi npijn rfott flm n nnaai ^n? 'I n^aeJ }'tv) pi ty-ipi rfpn rra-ip p n^aai np'pp ^ nrjHn nBfrnri ,r i ntor wnp 3"ip rrar pi Nnpi rnrj nrn (21) .nrnan p m rmm p-pi ^na asn n 1 ? pai^r "c^p'? nrr : whi n'ot pw nn$ -i iij (22) .prfp rfjo'n fETip or .■ptzrip Eprjrj arna'pai rrcpfp war] 27. Daniel 7 163 Translate into English: |5~[ (verse 20) is what part of speech: gender number What form are the following verbs: Root Conjugation Tense Person Gender Number r?7$ rntp t ■ : n iH£ np'pp n^ nm 164 • An Introduction to Aramaic The subject of il^S] is NOTE that the description of the fourth beast in verse 19 includes the phrase CDPTj "H PfHSEp ("claws of bronze"), which is not found in verse 7 where it may, therefore, have been accidentally omitted. bl )Q K3BJri "H KinKS »10F1 »^3"j ! D t ?a ^rryrn ^CTH "10*? )? (23) nrro'pn nan -iejij t^pp] (24) .napnrn natfnrn ajnia ^3 towm Rnp'pQ •frs'pQ nn^ni tra-ip p rjej* rom jinnrjHi rap 1 : pron 'pop': p^a mtor par n^tfif? "iacn vhn\ pi^i? "'EHp'pi bbw afpjp ixb fyyi (25) .^atfrr jtwrr; naja'pitf] air whi (26) .pr a'pai ]toi py iv fits pTjTi nni ninn mr^a "H Kinrrn aaa 1 ^ nrrobai (27) .ssio -fjj rrain^ rnasrP : t : : - ■ t : tt:t: t :~ x ' t - tt : t t : - r\b iwa'pti bb) cbx roba nro'pa pipy ^pp nip nrnrr iraej ^3 Translate into English: 27. Daniel 7 165 NOTICE the difference between }-\m ("another") and ]innrj»l ("after them") in verse 24, which are comparable to the Hebrew pair iniSS ("other") and '"IPI^ ("after"). ~IH t ? (lit. "to the side of) apparently means "against" in verse 25. ]1V n'pD^l yyiV) ]1V (verse 25) refers to the three and one half units of time (1 + 2 + 1/2) which are also mentioned in Daniel 8:14 and 9:27. What form are the following verbs: Root Conjugation Tense Person Gender Number rnnn ■pirn": roTT ^aeJir NOTICE that the il is retained in this last form, as in the grammatically simi- lar Jtwri* (verse 26). To what conjugation does each of the following verbs belong: What is the root of: rrain'? t t : All three of these words are 166 • An Introduction to Aramaic What are the roots and the conjugations for the following verbs? Conjugation Root .mtD3 "3^3 NrfpQI Translate into English: NOTICE the similar phrase near the end of Ecclesiastes (12:13). List all the verbs in this verse and give the form of each: Verb Root Conjugation Tense Person Gender Number Chapter 28 Inscriptions The oldest surviving texts in Aramaic are inscriptions. We will consider three of these, one from the language's earliest known period, another that was found in a modern collection so that its original date and location are unknown, and a third that comes from a seventh-century synagogue. The following words are common in inscriptions and should be learned: brother PIN evil (sometimes EJND) . . ET3 remember ~D~I see non direct object marker iT thus p is not UWb open nns Our earliest evidence of Aramaic's long history comes from a series of inscriptions which were found in northern Syria and had been written during the time of Israel's divided monarchy.* Several of these are from the rulers of a country known as Sam'al, a petty king- dom of the ninth and eighth centuries, a time during which the Arameans established several small countries in this region. (The Bible mentions Damascus, Zobah, Beth Rechob, and Maacah.) The example which follows is by one Barrakib, who apparently ruled Sam'al towards the end of the eighth century, about the same time that Amos, Hosea, Micah, and Isaiah were active in Israel. It was found at Zinjirli in northwest Syria at the end of the last century. A relief with his picture (see p. 168) is inscribed with the words 103B ~Q 2D"1 "ID HUN at the top. This same phrase opens the much longer inscription which we will read here. *These are conveniently collected in H. Donner and W. Rollig's Kanaanaische und Aramaische Inschriften (Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz, 1966). 167 168 An Introduction to Aramaic .»pn» 'im Kin lo-tontoi mi? b\*QV -[to ide in nm in n]» .'na noid to lo'ton^n 'tooi ^nm -rid ^ntDin piim "ok pinn pto nr^on mto» ~[to -kid to?:o nam .to p tou •at* rrm in rrn p nrncrm "ok rrn nm»i .nm s tom ^on "ton pini na "m .Tnn into rra to 1 ? toto tik launm .|nim pto onb sins to kid on'? into rrn an ^nqe? 'nto Tins'? rrcr'? .13? kto rrn mai .twra rrn «m settle (H) nET summer pn middle Hi^Q exert oneself, toil . . bfcH and -2 desire (Htn) intt grasp TPIN dialect form o/Tm s n wheel bf?^ behold N1 28. Inscriptions • 169 Vocabulary (cont.) righteousness plH gold DHT quarter IO~l this i"DT run TTl goodness i"DO winter in© be pleasing (H) 3CD 1 Use the biblical vowel system to vocalize the above text. Translate it into English: Proper Names DD"1 *"Q — This name is pronounced Barrakib according to an inscribed Hittite seal, where it is spelled out syllabically (Orientalia 20 [1957] 345). 10]S — Pronounced Panamuwa according to cuneiform inscriptions from several Assyrian rulers (e.g., Tiglath Pilesar III; see James Pritchard, Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Testament, pp. 282 and 283); -muwa was a common ending for names in Asia Minor (see Tb'D below). b^QiD — The ancient name of the land in which Zinjirli is located; it may also have been called Yaudi. 170 • An Introduction to Aramaic "lDvDn^n — Tiglath Pilesar III, who is mentioned several times in the Bible (2 Kings 15:29; 16:7, 10; 1 Chronicles 5:6, 26; 2 Chronicles 28:20); he is called by the Babylonian throne name Pul in 2 Kings 15:19. ^NDD"! — The patron god of Sam'al. idj'D — An earlier ruler of Sam'al from the ninth century, who is apparently the author of another inscription found in Zinjirli (see H. Donner and W. Rollig, Kanaandische unci Aramdische Inschriften, no. 24, and James Pritchard, Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Testament, p. 654). NOTICE that we have already encountered 8|P*"18 in Jeremiah 10:11, where it is jux- taposed with the more common form 8IH8, demonstrating two different real- izations of the Semitic consonant d, which appears as IS in Hebrew (i.e. f"")8).* The title 8p*"18 ""Wl 8~!0 is a translation from Assyrian (shar kibrat arba'i). n#2£ft (middle) can be compared with mishnaic 3^08; the second section of the talmudic tractate fp^] is called NiTKO 8D3 ( me ^ rst sect ion is 8I33 8QJP and the last section 8*11111 8I33, as explained on p. 153). ■QKXin appears to be a hitnafal form from a root related to i"D8 and '38'' (wish); its meaning would be something like "envy" or "be jealous." The most conspicuous features of this early inscription are the number of forms which agree with Hebrew, rather than biblical Aramaic: 'nEJlil contrast the form im*"! (e.g., Ezra 4: 10) from the root 3n\ fflO v corresponding to the Akkadian la isu, comes from the words ET 8"? ("it is not"); however it appears as n" 1 *? in other Aramaic sources, including the massoretes' marginal notes to the biblical text, where its abbrevia- tion b is used to identify forms that are spelled uniquely in the Hebrew text (see p. 55). HilT is common in the Aramaic sections of the Bible, but appears there as IPR (e.g., Ezra 5:14; 6:5, and often in Daniel 2, 3, and 5). TPI8 usually spelled 1PI8 in Aramaic. n]T typically ilH (but compare Hebrew "IT). *The two forms are juxtaposed in the Elephantine letter (Cowley 6) presented in chapter 29. 28. Inscriptions • 171 HK"1 is from the root YT\, which appears as Em in Aramaic (compare Targum Onkelos with the original Hebrew in Genesis 24:27, 20, 28, and 29). These are all cases in which original Semitic sounds that came to be realized differ- ently in Hebrew and in Aramaic (e.g., t_ as CD or H, t_ as or K, and d as T or 1) here follow the "Hebrew" (really Canaanite) spelling. This inscription may, therefore, have been written before these two branches of Northwest Semitic had fully separated. Thus the original t_ appears as CD in DCD1H and fflb, / as K in Y~) and f"0, and d as T in DHT, TilS, and H3T. K1TD spelled ED^p in biblical Aramaic (Daniel 2:35), but 'Pp in Hebrew. The use of 2 instead of p may reflect a certain fluidity in spelling (so also intD appears as Tip in Song of Songs 2:11). However, since the same spelling is found in several other inscriptions, it is more likely that dis- similation caused the p to shift to D, inasmuch as the word already had one emphatic letter Q£) in it. Several other features in this inscription are characteristically Aramaic: SOUNDS: The a sound is evident in H3N (as opposed to Hebrew ^N) and words like 1ED, where it shifted to 6 in Hebrew. words: pnm Kin koid in in FORMS: The determined state (K-D^Q, RTO, «pn«); masculine plural suffixes ending with nwn (e.g., p^Q); perfect, 1st person singular forms ending with -et rather than -ti (e.g., n-n and nm»). The next inscription was found on a stone plaque in a nineteenth-century collection of antiquities at the Russian convent on Jerusalem's Mount of Olives. It mentions Judah's King Uzziah, who reigned during the early part of the eighth century; however, its "Aramaic style" script was not adopted by Jews until the Babylonian Exile, when it replaced the "Phoenician" (Paleo-Hebrew) script that had been used during the monarchy period. The inscription itself was probably written sometime around the first century. 172 • An Introduction to Aramaic ~iim i » » i " 1 '. m.% u 35 v v VbcaZ?w/ary bones DtD here i"D Use the biblical vowel system to vocalize the above text. Translate it into English: riTin is an H passive form of the common root HHN ("come," cf. Daniel 6:18). 28. Inscriptions • 173 , QQ is equivalent to the Hebrew word Ci$V ("bone"). The loss of the V sug- gests that it was not pronounced in this period; there are several reports in the Talmud indicating that the letters V and N were often not distin- guished in pronunciation during the early centuries of this era (j. Berakhot 2:4, b. Berakhot 32a, b. Megillah 24b, b. Erubin 53b). UTSCb the ft in this word is shaped like the form (ft) which is used today at the end of words (see the illustration on p. 172). Apparently, the two shapes we use for the letter ft were originally interchangeable (see Isaiah 9:6); over time, one of them (ft) was reserved for the end of words, probably on the basis of analogy with other letters in which medial (ft, 1, ft, K) and final forms (*], |, *"], Y) had come to be distinguished. Thus ft is the only final form that does not have a tail. The prohibition against opening the vessel containing Uzziah's bones is typical of many inscriptions (for several Phoenician examples, see James Pritchard, Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Testament, pp. 661-62). 2 Chronicles 26:23 reports that King Uzziah, who suffered from leprosy, was buried in a special location outside Jerusalem's city wall (cf. Josephus, Antiquities 9:10.4 §227 and Nehemiah 3:15). This inscription, then, attests to his bones' having been moved some time after their initial burial. A final inscription comes from the mosaic floor of a seventh-century synagogue locat- ed in c Ein Gedi, along the western coast of the Dead Sea between Qumran and Masada. (An earlier, Hebrew section of the inscription lists several ancient biblical luminaries and the signs of the zodiac.) mnr6 im p labs yrm p ^ft .^m rran rpnm ]iTjn nor mb fTft-i nn ^n p ti rmnm rrirm yn ti rrftfti^ mnn by era ]vh noa tf ms» jrr sin nrrvno "am nsrm bm poitDD mrm p rvmub nmpn p»i p» nfti? ^ft pm .rrftic mnn p rrrT -npm rnrrai inn ninn "jo s nn ftft^ p'm 'Bbn p rpm 's^n p nor -m .nbo .di*7EJ mftnnn nas;'? mr ps 174 An Introduction to Aramaic Vocabulary selah (liturgical term) . . UbO hidden thing HITlD uproot ~)pU discord 3^2 property (n)H2i Merciful One pm wander QCD0 amen (liturgical term) jQN nose, anger ^N between (p) p steal n]3 of -1 stair m or Tt seed IHT Proper Names Tp'Til — This form conforms to a normal northern pattern for spelling the divine ele- ment at the end of names rather than the more familiar (southern) in 1 -. nor ■p-pr Use the biblical vowel system to vocalize the above text. Translate it into English: NOTICE the phrase mm p (lit. "This one, which his eyes," i.e. "the one whose eyes . . ."). 28. Inscriptions • 175 Several features of this inscription are familiar from other Aramaic texts we have stud- ied. For example, mnn occurs in the book of Daniel (also Jeremiah 10:11), as does the direct object marker n 1 (Daniel 3:12) in contrast to biblical Hebrew's Htf. 'pTIH and HIHN also reflect common Aramaic forms (contrast the Hebrew words ]""DT and fltf), as does ]H. Surprisingly, JT1T is closer to the Hebrew form of the word for "arm" (i?l"lT) than biblical Aramaic's i7~H(N); note also wbti rather than D"?27. Other notable spellings include: p for yi (between) WD1I0 for ^27 (sky) T\1ty from the root "1QK (say) 'JO forme (much) The last two examples, along with Tl rather than the more common KTI, suggest that the pronunciation of several consonants was becoming weaker. (See p. 70 regarding 27 becom- ing D; examples are mentioned on pp. 171 and 206.) On the other hand, this inscription contains several unfamiliar phenomena: - passive participles ( D'33 and DTP) used in apparently active contexts. - the particle ~1 where biblical Aramaic uses *1. - final ' in words the Bible spells with n (e.g., ^ and "On). - the determined suffix marked with H rather than the biblical K. Chapter 29 Letters Several Aramaic letters have survived from various periods of antiquity. Although our interest here is linguistic, they provide important evidence for understanding the nature of ancient letters in general. Vocabulary To Be Learned women ] , E}'] fire m burnt offering . . . nrbV/Tl'by donkey "1017 compassion ]0m month PIT break "OD to, with n")7> here nan altar rDTO self 0S3 The first letter was written in the fifth pre-Christian century at a Jewish settlement on the island of Yeb (Elephantine), which is north of the first cataract of the Nile, where the Aswan Dam is located today. The Persian Empire, which had conquered Egypt in 525 b.c.e., supported Jewish mercenaries in this military colony on the southern frontier of ancient Egypt. Their writings, on papyri, were discovered in the early part of the twentieth century. The following letter gives us a fair amount of information about the colony's history. Lines 1-3 :Krm rrn n rtd nrraDi irrr yaa mrv nns trm j^nn b$ vobn cnmnn nip ynw ]nrr{y\ yw tod waio bw wqib nbx jNia dw "in intDi mm -p ]nr pna "fm .^n nn jm "t p -itp «rra -m .p:> Ton 176 29. Letters • 177 Vocabulary long -p"lN fortress HilTD who, which "T happiness mn life jTI prosperous THE? Use the biblical vowel system to vocalize the passage above. Translate it into English: Proper Nouns Tlin — governor of Judah, apparently after Nehemiah rnT — son of Gemariah, priest and leader of the Jewish community EJIiTTT — Darius II, who ruled Persia from 423 to 403. The letter ends with the author's statement that he wrote this in the 17th year of Darius' reign, i.e. 407 B.C.E. rfttt "in — 1000 times; compare the phrase HIDE? "in in Daniel 3:19 (see p. 90) 178 An Introduction to Aramaic Lines 4-13 □sin »d vobn tznmm 14 nato nan ra :pDK p nmoi mam "pnr ps arm Dr n^ainn wrm rrn n man »n"7K n «hdd to'ra ^ 'ptki psu .nan p nun 1 " Rrm rra n sn^a im n »ma» ri? .mn ran -pma n matf? ariia pen mn mnnn n mn paa ^ n^s nnaa ntt 1 ? m aanmi nn^ m , n L ? ins ]nn« tfmn or sm^o in paa ins .lenr wrm rnn "t n-mn nan nn n sans s t rhtqui Kins ni? •'men] m »ma«n t>v cm^n djj t ism -]T tmata nn "t pa "t nmos pn 5 p» s t pin mn ^n .ion ran rp-pio du "T * mrm mr k^ mbin nam'pi nma nd^q erinm 17 na© or in tjt p ^k .]Ti2J incense 17313'? also *]N grain offering niTJO widow n7>ft*")N oil PTEJft our p'T anoint PTOQ that TJT until ~7i? this H3T noble Til Proper Nouns pmrP — the high priest, mentioned also in Nehemiah 12:22 and 13:28 pOIN — a Jew, brother of Anani ^V — scribe and chancellor to Arsame; 1 Chronicles 3:24 mentions a descendant of David who bore the same name 182 • An Introduction to Aramaic Use the biblical vowel system to vocalize the passage above. Translate it into English: This passage demonstrates that there were ties between the Jews of Elephantine and those in Jerusalem, an impression supported by the analogous links with those in Babylon described in the books of Ezra and Nehemiah. Lines 22-30 no ymn by ]n .paa p y 'bin b'D imrm nmam rrrp you paa npnm yaa "bun nn .man 1 ? ]^ pnco »•? nn nana 1 ? y tmaa by niou™ n'ana*? »n"7K in" "t trnaN ^ Din^i) n^nc* -pa mat* .puan nan "t ^ pip" Nrrfrin Nnain^i Nnnai .pip mn nan n bnp^ wrm n s n amm pm pai nanas pi? 'pnn -pr rfasn "pen sn^s in" n Nnnna n^N in" nip -p mn" npisi nann" -jt fcmaa "t nr> nar p ]n .nan "t ^n .nnr by) rpx pnan *pa "ann pn ]nnm m^ n^ nip 1 s t nna p woio rrabioi n^n ^u pen in 1 ?© nnn nna^n n^q pto t]« .pmn pbv nar ^ .rT vb nzn» »"7D ]■? T3U n nan t]« .pa© nns Efrntuo "an .to'pa coirm n nas pnna'? 20 _ n 29. Letters • 183 Vocabulary a coin m 01'D 1000 rpto grain offering (cf. HTOQ) . Kiino sacrifice PD"! intend (Gt-take thought) . UfiV price "'HI merit HpfK gold DHT Use the biblical vowel system to vocalize the passage above. Translate it into English: Proper Nouns ITO 1 ?© and rrbl — sons of Sanballat (people with the same names are mentioned in Ezra 2:60; 10:39, 41; and Nehemiah 3:30 and 13:13, supporting the picture of post-exilic Jewry presented both in this document and the Bible) 0^3^30 — (Akkadian Sin-uballit) — governor of Samaria (cf. Nehemiah 2:19; 3:33; 6:1; etc.) !*lE?mO — month in late fall 184 • An Introduction to Aramaic The most conspicuous linguistic feature in this letter is its use of T where biblical Aramaic uses 1, especially for the demonstrative elements H3T, *]T, and "OT as well as 1 (cf. bl). Note also 111 (biblical Aramaic has 1711). On the other hand, the spelling pD for "tree" con- trasts with the Hebrew TV; biblical Aramaic uses DR. (Compare the word RpIR that is found in Jeremiah 10:11 for the Hebrew pN, which Aramaic elsewhere presents as D"1K.) The redundant syntax of the phrase "^D 'T TIlilR (lit. "his brother of Anani") is com- parable to that found in biblical Aramaic, as described in chapter 16. From almost six centuries later come a series of letters written by Simon bar Kosiba, who led a Jewish revolt against the Romans. He is better known by his title Bar Kochba (lit. "son of the star," based on Numbers 24:17). These documents, written in Hebrew, Aramaic, and Greek, were found in caves near those which produced the famous Dead Sea Scrolls. The following example raises interesting possibilities about his religious views: )rraD rfron n pon nn p nn 1 ?© tirrriD rrpb iviq in mirr 1 ? pots -]nt> mm 1 ? jrfrBn pair n rtaco rn^i pn 11 pirn mb pru nn jnrr |pm .p-iDi ]"D-in p pen "jrrfrD prinR n^s rwi .ynrm yibb rhw Kin mrm^ jnrr n^si citron 3~inR myrtle Dlil palm ibb camp H]nQ load 1QD willow frQID prepare pn 29. Letters • 185 Use the biblical vowel system to vocalize the passage above. Translate it into English: Proper Nouns rro:io in mirr ■pin 12 ]rmrP — with Masabala, apparently Bar Kochba's military commander of Ein Gedi, to whom most of Bar Kochba's letters are addressed rtaOft — son of Shimon TO"1# ITHp — lit. "town of the Arabs" or "willows," where Judah was posted between Ein Gedi and Bar Kochba's main camp (presumably at Betar) The preposition TTb is a compound made of up -h and Dl (from JT, which occurs in Daniel 3:12); in other words, it is a double direct object marker, which appears once ( "jm^Q) with an additional preposition (-0). The reference to the palm (2T7), citron (nt"1N), myrtle (Dill), and willow (NH*"),y) is reminiscent of the holiday of Sukkot (see traditional Jewish interpretations of Leviticus 23:40, as found in Targum Onkelos and Mishnah Sukkah 3-4, for example), at which time these four species are to be waved in celebration of a successful harvest. Chapter 30 Dead Sea Scrolls Several of the famous Dead Sea Scrolls, which were discovered during the 1940's and 1950's, are written in Aramaic. Many of these are the writings of a religious community that settled alongside the Wadi Qumran during the Hasmonean period (2d century b.c.e.), proba- bly in order to avoid the wrath of the governing party in Jerusalem; other documents found there may have been the community's copies of more widely known writings. The selections that follow are from a scroll called the Genesis Apocryphon (lQapGen) because it expands on passages in the book of Genesis. The sections here are based on Genesis 12, which describes Abraham and Sarah's visit to the land of Egypt. According to the Bible, Abraham was worried that the Pharaoh might have him killed so that he could have the beau- tiful Sarah for himself. In this passage, Abraham describes a dream he experienced as he entered Egypt, which foreshadows what he expected would happen there. Vocabulary To Be Learned face, nose rptf wife nras companion "DPI lovely fc^ take 303 eye "pi? love Dm 19:14-17 in n» »m "Q^rn mm .pun snub bun nbbn cbn Dins ms no^m pintDD^i \xmb ipudy\ ypnb pirn ins etdn »m .tns aw sin tnnrn win na *mtb wpn b$ mosi amon rwtoKi .nminta Kmon .fpn» vb\ Nmon bbva »n» p'am .sin varw p 186 30. Dead Sea Scrolls • 187 Vocabulary singly 7*in t 7 human KJ13N uproot Ipii cedar HN cut down f^p dream D^n family D"l© shadow bb^ palm ion protest (af c el) ftbD Use the biblical vowel system to vocalize the above text. Translate it into English: 'btiQ — the G infinitive of bh$\ other G infinitives in this passage are p"QE70, "lp#0, and fpD. -b — marks the direct object (WIN). DNvSN — a perfect form from the root tifro, which must, therefore, belong to the } af c el conjugation. bib — introduces a negative command. The next column of the scroll describes Sarah in a way that justifies Abraham's con- cern (Genesis 12:11), albeit one that seems more suitable to the Song of Songs than the book of Genesis: 188 An Introduction to Aramaic 20:2-8 nodi mn n^ as 1 nod wtsuk p 'tdi nhs^n rb Kin :n »di Rmry rfr ntno 'td Tom ]y» nod kitti jtbib so arnrn nito^ 'ro rfr tejbj nod Rrr'an .am 1 nrn^« 'td )rtDpi pna koi ppsd jw nod .mtt lisc »•? ]i]}^ pw n ]ffei jbira toi .tvpEJ rfr in 4 ? No 4 ?© nodi |T2c "to d^i p^iD ]d \*bsh ams© k ,l ^i mstD idisj pew 'pid ^i .amo .««•' arrT'm anou m® nodii p kiss radiance, bloom p splendid IT2£] form D^H delicate "ftDp pleasant nn 1 soft ppl beauty "1210 perfect C^EJ beautiful TSti be beautiful 1SE7 leg D2? rfTTQ long virgin bridal chamber p2 possessive (cf. 'TT) "71 arm IH~I breast mn attractive TOPI bride rfo perfect T^D hand sp whiteness p^ appearance HTilQ Use the biblical vowel system to vocalize the above text. 30. Dead Sea Scrolls • 189 Translate it into English: ]7 is equivalent to the biblical demonstrative iin. Although Abraham's statement about Sarah's beauty is surprising in light of the Bible's reference to her as having been 90 at the time Isaac was conceived (Genesis 17:17, cf. 18:12) and having lived in Canaan less than 25 years (cf. Genesis 12:4 and 17:1), her beauty was often noted in post-biblical literature. For example, the rabbis say that she lit up the entire land of Egypt {Genesis Rabbah 40:5). 20:8-11 ■»3io f^DD finrfrn in dd n Tiron pn 'biy\ enap-in "bn vobn rno hdi *mib rh Nrno3i wrsm 'td by rrariNi »nrm «mm mil? 1 ? nbw-i nam .srfn •?!? "imtq mn hd Kin Titn to^D 1 ? no mosi ^Bpo 1 ? turn q^t ton *]»pn "on cins ms r?D3i .rfrop k^ Kn'r-Q n-na ton np'iioi 1 90 • An Introduction to Aramaic Vocabulary force OHIN cry HDD lead (away) ~~Q~l haste SOW wonder (A) FJOn Use the biblical vowel system to vocalize the above text. Translate it into English: Proper Nouns 2J1]p"in — an Egyptian noble, not mentioned in any other traditions about this incident. EDf? — Abraham's nephew NOTICE that ^fc) is spelled both with and without N. nnUN corresponds to the Hebrew word PI27N (woman), with t realized as H in Aramaic (it is 27 in Hebrew) and the root's 3 retained. This document includes both H (the relative pronoun found throughout biblical Aramaic and at Elephantine in the form 1) and the particle ~1, as in the synagogue inscription from Ein Gedi. "13HQ ("benefit") is apparently an Htpa c al of either "DN or "I3D, both of which can mean "earn, gain." Chapter 31 MlDRASH Numerous passages in rabbinic literature are written in Aramaic, although not all texts use the same dialect and the language frequently shifts back and forth into Hebrew. The pas- sage below is from Genesis Rabbah, a collection of rabbinic lore which was probably com- piled in Palestine during the fifth century. It is arranged as a commentary on the book of Genesis. The following selection relates to the Bible's statement that Abraham's brother Haran died ]S bv their father Terah (Genesis 11:28). That phrase is usually translated "in the presence of; however, the rabbis understood it to mean that Haran had died "on account of his father, who, they taught, had been an idol maker. Vocabulary To Be Learned place "TIN bring (H) by when ]VD die mn deliver "IDQ human 27] tin mn .vnnn idiq DmiN yvnn T&b ps3 ]qt in .mn wnba 1112 nnn iqn .praan in tm'? iqn ?hn p:© nn:> in :n^ iqn .|nn td e» in .t> -[mm eranD mm .not in'? -mom ptoon in n»n n-q:i mnnb m :mb Vbcabw/ary (Words marked with an asterisk are Hebrew.) set (H) 3ET embarrass (Dt) EJn * how many H03 that NTH sell n^Q * woe! *"n instead of nnn * buy pT fifty peton 191 192 • An Introduction to Aramaic Use the biblical vowel system to vocalize the passage above. Translate it into English: NOTICE the intermingling of Hebrew and Aramaic. Forms like COn^, and nnn are clearly Hebrew (perhaps TETin, too, although it also occurs in the Barrakib inscription presented in chapter 29; the form ITTin is found throughout the book of Daniel); however, in, ]QT, DS3, 12, and IVitfb are Aramaic, as is the particle ~1. "ID is often used to indicate a quality, as in the phrase 03 "ID (human being). With a time span, it indicates age: •pE) HQD ID how old •pEJQn in fifty years old NOV ~Q one day old "DO ("bow down") also occurs in Arabic, where it provides the root for the word masjid, which designates a place of worship, just as W21Q designates a place of sacrifice, i.e., an altar, and 220Q a place of lying, i.e., a bed. The Arabic word has come into English in the form "mosque." .•prrmp mp ~p xn twb mQ» .rboi -p-a in wra kitpk nn^ pt in »n»i |td .pm ram Tra nonpti mnn nrm pnnm nonpti rrco ap antra ann nna ?-jn man] nn :n^ nna ?pr> pn mi) nn :n^ nna mn« "»Qip 'tok w» hon p .ptnp nip rn nnow nnon -jra in wro :n^ nna .pnnm nobpin n^oa nnn yin Dp .»wanp noa »]» :nna pi .-paa ~pm lraer vbi trrb nna .pa pT n nnan n» no 31. Midrash 193 Vocabulary (Words marked with an asterisk are Hebrew.) how HQ * flour rbo mouth HS * plate "]ra trick 8*73 first Wlp sacrifice (D) DID ear jTN * eat 'PDN club xobpin this p that sinn carry |^Q deny 1ED * Vocalize the passage above using biblical vowels. Translate it into English: NOTICE the use of ' as a vowel marker (mater lectionis), particularly in the par- ticiples (p"S] and pro). NnJTN (woman) is the determined form, although its sense is indefinite (see p. 25). Its root is T\1% as shown by the form nH3N in the Genesis Apocryphon (chapter 30). In the Hebrew form of this word (n©N) the ] has assimilated to the CD, as it does to the D here. In the Genesis Apocryphon either the ] had not assimilated or the double D dissimilated (like the H infinitive ?bxi17\, which comes from the root bbti; see p. 119). 194 • An Introduction to Aramaic wnb -naoa twb iqk .vnrh "naoa :rr'? ion .-ma]'? rrrnooi rrno] .n-d -3i?CD"T 'aau 1 ? -naoa infr no« .wn 1 ? "naoai rrr 1 ? "iqk .fcmab ]"S3toQ"r :n^ ids mow ^aioi Nim 1 ? -naoa :n^ -iqk .teai? 1 ? -naoai :n^ ion ns! ]^q :n ,t 7 -iqk .Kim 'rioi woa in'? -naoa :n^ ion .kith 1 ? -naoai mnncQ nnt«D "prfra aim in -p^oo 'ann .tin 1 ? vfat -naoa tf? .'un»Q .13DQ i^ , ^ , i ft (Words marked with an asterisk are Hebrew.) lift (G) no: flame TIN save (H) 'XU * except fcfttt endure ^DD god DTlftfl * cloud }1V behold "in * throw (H) "pti extinguish (>afel) PECO talk (Gt) nVV water K"D prostrate self mnnEJO * Use the biblical vowel system to vocalize the passage. Translate it into English: 31. Midrash • 195 The rabbis regarded Nimrod, who is mentioned in Genesis 10:8-10, as having been a powerful but wicked ruler who tried to impose his form of idolatry on all the ancient peoples under his control. wasa )Q iQN »]» D"n» rca □» rjiosu rra not* .y^a trap pn jon mn ^•m csn \vazb cram ite) )vd .wn -mom w» -iqn thd] ns3 □» n3n •norm ewn ima^cm lrrfreu .d-qni p :n^ ins ?ns |q~i jd it'? paa .ma mn "3a ^ pn ncn nTim Kin sin .ma "3a by rial ten van (Words marked with an asterisk are Hebrew.) belly VU12 parch "lDPI will EJ33 * go out NH 1 * win nU3 * descend IT * be saved (N) ^13 * furnace jEDD * divided T^a on the side of ~1 jQ Use the biblical vowel system to vocalize the passage above. Translate it into English: 196 • An Introduction to Aramaic DTD"! Sill Sin (this is what is written) — introduces a biblical quotation, in this case the passage from Genesis (11:28) that the preceding story is intended to explain. NOTICE the interweaving of Hebrew and Aramaic in this selection. The verbs b'OXl and *)~lftn] are nifal, a conjugation which does not occur in biblical Aramaic. The following phrases are pure Hebrew: rnnn idiq nmn» rrtznn yen yv» woto* 1 k^i •odd -frm t> mnnoa nnt«D "pn^ sin in "p^raa Tin rn» "3a ^ rim rcsri Chapter 32 Targum With the spread of Aramaic among Jews after the Babylonian exile, the Hebrew Bible became increasingly inaccessible. It was, therefore, translated into Aramaic. Reciting such a translation was even required as part of liturgical Scripture reading (Mishna Megillah 4:4, cf. Babylonian Talmud Berakhot 8a). Several different translation traditions developed, some of which were eventually written down in what have come to be known as targumim (the root first occurs in Ezra 4:7, where it introduces the Aramaic section of that book). The most important of these are a translation of the Pentateuch attributed to Onkelos and one of the Prophets attributed to Jonathan. (These names may be related to Aquila and Theodotion, who were considered the authors of ancient Greek translations of the Bible; the latter means "God gives" in Greek, just as Jonathan does in Hebrew, while Aquila and Onkelos are phonetically close.) Although these versions tend to follow the original Hebrew rather closely, other Aramaic translations expand on the biblical text. Among these is a targum to the Pentateuch which appears to have reached its present form in Palestine sometime after the seventh cen- tury and has traditionally come to be ascribed to Jonathan (hence scholars' reference to it as Pseudo- Jonathan). Its rendering of the biblical text is considerably more expansive than that of Onkelos, as demonstrated by its translation of Genesis 22 (the binding of Isaac): Vocabulary To Be Learned inherit JIT after "IfO * height DT1D behold, how »]»n slaughter CD] lift fpT on "b^D instead of tpMl place mtD young servant IT^CD *From in«n; see p. 62 and Daniel 2:29 (p. 80) and 7:6-7 (pp. 152-54). 197 198 An Introduction to Aramaic hon mn ^Niozr .bxvQWi pmr mn p ■p'Twr N-Qarva inn mm (l) nrmb -on ^ no» mn pmri .k ,,_ d , o m~o win kdk it rnmnb »on b HD»1 ^DtZT ^U ."Q^f »HQ» Ian ID ri3Kl rmnTK HIS ID ttitn K3K 5T vamzb 'mas mn pai pto ^obrb nnran-R w»n "jrn tit not w» Ninao ~p mn T>a fOT troon in mtan» nasi .a-irana 1 ? "ssa noa sain vb yrbn in md? »]»n nasi pmr rnriQ .siTan^ -jejaa idq mn tf? wa'rn t ]q .nana Tim ^ "its bi^b sin T~n wzmp "in ttki po noi Drra« m •'oa »h mo^o t pi »q^ mo mp •pTan N-Qarra wnnzpK .□n~oa imb iqki immediately T ]Q understanding iH30 test (D) '03 quarrel nH3 refuse 323)1? wish iaa^ the Holy One WtfTlp seven (#)32E7 thirteen 'TOTTl thirty yrbn eight »"]Qn organ ID'S if V>K if "pa mother ON handmaid NHftN senior WHO'D perhaps NOT! worthy "WOT today VCnV word NIO'O after H ]D Use the biblical vowel system to vocalize the passage above. 32. Targum • 199 Translate it into English: "' is the way God's name is presented in this manuscript. NOTE: (a) the use of s as a vowel letter {mater lectionis) in: nouns - Darns, nn pb pms nn^ii^ cmns nasi (5) rnrm sn'pi? nab -naoai "p p 1 pa nntzansn rra Dpn 1 p 'aim 1 ? to iu n'ra rroai ma pmr »r>:? ntzn sn^m "cp n 1 arras a^oai (6) .prm 1 ? "ins annas'? pmr nasi (7) .snna ainmnn inrsi saoo n*»i sntzrs it ?snni>n sna^s ]sm p'pi uncru sn nasi .sasn nasi .to* nasi D^tD ana mm-in inrsi :na snnj;n sna s s n"n inn 1 -"• :annas nasi (8) .mm here now j*l~D here I'D knife pD youth TD^IU cloud p worship lil'PlS morning snSH do early (H, >afel) nip Dt (□"pnn) be fulfilled . Dip cut VQp rise in circle "lCDp twig RCp perfect Dft\D fig rUKTl S3 wait ("[IS >afel) "plS lamb na"S if p glory snp'S Op'' >vzY/z prosthetic S) recognize IHianOS examine ]PQ choose *im announce (Gt) "lED seize, take nan palm snpH behold SH here San olive JTT saddle TIT only TIT 32. Targum • 201 Use the biblical vowel system to vocalize the passage above. Translate it into English: ~pD jlIT V~0 is the targum's rendering of the biblical phrase ^"l! iTO 1 !"fe in Genesis 15:5, where God promises Abraham that his descendants will be as numer- ous as the stars. 202 • An Introduction to Aramaic The spelling DT and NHETN further demonstrate the generous use of vowel letters in this text. p'ON is an 3 af c el form of the root pbo (cf. IpOil in Daniel 3:23; see p. 119); note also "lEDDK, which is Htpe c el (the form is 3d person masculine singular perfect), and 'pinions, which is a verb based on the noun IHIft (in the "Hshtafal"). ''CDDrU is nitpa c el, a mixture of hitpa c el and nifal. "Til (fitting) is a passive participle of HTIl (see), providing yet again an example of a verb which means "to see" being used for "fitting" in the passive (others are Aramaic 'DPI and Hebrew ''"IN*")). □is kdi armo m Dmaa ]an »m , " rrb iq^i xinvb lriKi (9) m •nmr moi .wiai^an »mn nasmw rmaai ra am wmia-i ^aa "oarrw asai (10) .| , o , p ]d *?&? arma ^ mm "ibt mna pmr m nsai t^crp tp nsa mat^ pmr now ^ .mna m aa-'ab wao na^aai mm m annaa panpa k'tds nan®"! rf?am «ai^ Tnai ^aan Kirs p aansa nfrn mm .Nana "a^a^ i^anaa pmrn ma^i pmrn ma^a ^anaa cmasi ma ,, j; ■pan jima rwana ■or'to pi? rnnm "an vb cmasi anm "an mn pmr a-oanam aara vb D"on maana nm a"aa in Na'pm man pmm pn .amaa ama« nn nam mas |a "n mj^na mn mp (li) .nnns cress .Era ditto mn Tarn «ni mnan ~[T bwi na nasi (12) . roan nasi .ma pTr m pa m aro^ar m?i rat* "n m?nn ant* "ap na pa dtik maci mr^a^ ma nammr in rnian mm mm na^ m amaN npn (13) TpaNi mm a^aai nnnna 'prm .nanpn mimmi wwim mna ma'pr .ma n,nin mnnrn 32. Targum 203 Vocabulary arrange "110 knife pO look (Dt) b20 above 'T'V refuse HDI? destroy "IDS division Nrfll^D blemish N'PlCfi struggle 0D12 extend CDEffl neck 7112$ pain IJES wood NO'p offering P"P place 112? sun mti twilight . . . tWn'EJ »ra completion ^"to© catch lilS plural participle o/iriN . . . jlJTN behold CTIS create , 1!1 thrust Ill ram ITCH destruction I'PDl thicket NmizJnn flood ]^mCD well mir only TIT stretch forth (H) EDET now |HD slaughter ODD water !ft anything D#TQ (seenXHQ on p. 178) banish 11] Use the biblical vowel system to vocalize the passage above. Translate it into English: 204 • An Introduction to Aramaic &Q must be understood as "rebuild" in this context. Nrfll'PB (division) is a traditional term for the dispersion which took place after the confrontation with God involving the Tower of Babel. DD1D3 — this dialect of Aramaic uses -3 for the imperfect first person singular prefix. □n*"QN~I ""\TH is a redundant construction, which literally means "his eye of Abraham," i.e., "Abraham's eye" (see p. 85). '""QiTN — this Gt form is based on the root ,_ D (create), which corresponds to the Hebrew root N~Q; note the convergence of final N and final il verbs in Aramaic. ^n2}Q , JD T!l — "twilight"; according to rabbinic tradition, God created several impor- tant things just before sunset during the week of creation (e.g., Mishna Avot 5:6). ^a "" "pip p prra iim na»i Kinn \snrxa ]on nmn» ,! »i tini (14) •prr ~d pD im ~[riTn -niro'? rvini wapir 'ra^n mn vbi "jinp .□inn" pnai Dinrr ^i Din^ "dtq "inn »p»3K hot'? i^u na pmn v \n pn^ 1 m amm* hed yn tmicn :pQK "no 1 ? ]ia»pn »m ta pn pTiin 32. Targum 205 DrroK 1 ? w h ndk^d »"ipi (15) ."""i Rnrao "n^r rr^arrK prn rma KDarrs rr main ^in , " laN rpa"p natn now (16) woe? p rnr^n -pa rr »aoa wow -jra-iaa tona diik (17) -pTP rr -[in rr rwaa vb"\ yin (18) ."pmcio ,,_ np rr ma firm .kb 1 *p 'pih ^nn th k'BE) 'aaiaa •nam (19) .natn Nrfrap-i ^in ritik "aau ^a ma mint pa pa-am .•po rim ]an mm var\ am Noma "a 4 ? »rrfawi pn^ 1 n 1 rdtid "dn^d dtd jnen sT'n'p Nina ftmi iapi namr m^ amaN an war Kinrrn □nia^ dedh ma p p^an N-Qana ma mm (20) .men Nmaa Dmaa naasi mo napi .pmr rr oaa omatn m© rnb "3m aaao bw pmr rr .»p"]» p nrrai nparronn Vocabulary word Nia^a angel "[K^B withhold uaa multiply (H) "3D Satan mt20 youth TCTbW trickery NQpltf cry out ttD save p"lS city amp swear □"p hate ft& Divine Presence .... Kna'OEJ choke (Gt) p32j tell "an second mam anguish ilp^N behold CT1S on account of pa son p* school house ©'"llB "0 petition IIQ blessing nam decree ifl'ia innocence IDT joy »mn sand bu praise (U/'afel) PIT sea W dwell an 1 now ]TTD star aaia shore spa 206 • An Introduction to Aramaic Use the biblical vowel system to vocalize the passage above. Translate it into English: '20 — This word is consistently spelled WZfD in the Bible, but '2D at Ein Gedi (p. 173). The letter 2J came to be written D in post-biblical Aramaic. Two examples of this which can be found already in the Bible are the spelling of the name KnOgnFTlHl in Ezra 7:21 and of "HD3 in Ezra 5:12 (see p. 38). rtPOEJ — is a hypostasis of God's presence, as is God's Nlft'ft (cf. the end of verse 1; the term is used more literally in verse 18). 'n — from rrn IQEH NTH — "the well of seven," a literal translation of the name Beer-sheba in accordance with the explanation of it given in Genesis 21:25-31. Afterword The biblical readings in this book have covered the substance of the entire Aramaic corpus in the Hebrew Bible; however, these passages have been abridged and simplified to fit the levels appropriate to the individual chapters in which they are found. Now that you are familiar with the language's grammar, you can read all of these texts in the original. The vocabulary is readily available in most standard biblical dictionaries, including: A Hebrew and English Lexicon of the Old Testament by Francis Brown, S. R. Driver, and Charles A. Briggs (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1907). Lexicon in Veteris Testamenti Libros by Ludwig Koehler and Walter Baumgartner (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1958). Hebrdisches und Aramdisches Lexikon zum alten Testament, Aramaic section ed. Johann Jakob Stamm and Benedikt Hartmann (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1995), translated into English under the supervision of M. E. J. Richardson as The Hebrew and Aramaic Lexicon of the Old Testament (vol. 5, 2000). In addition, Ernestus Vogt's Lexicon linguae aramaicae veteris testamenti documentis antiquis illustratum (Rome: Pontifical Biblical Institute, 1971) is devoted solely to biblical Aramaic. The standard biblical concordances (by S. Mandelkern, G. Lisowsky, and A. Even- Shoshan) also include Aramaic sections. There are several valuable commentaries on the biblical books which contain passages in Aramaic. The most useful ones on Ezra are by Loring Batten (International Critical Commentary), Jacob Myers (Anchor Bible), and H. G. M. Williamson (Word Biblical Commentary). For Daniel, see those by James Montgomery (International Critical Commentary), John Collins (Hermeneia), and Louis Hartman and Alexander Di Leila (Anchor Bible). The following tools will prove helpful for grammatical questions that may arise as you read selections from the Bible or investigate specific problems: Franz Rosenthal, A Grammar of Biblical Aramaic (Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz, 1963). 207 208 • An Introduction to Aramaic Hans Bauer and Pontus Leander, Grammatik des Biblisch-Aramdischen (Halle/Saale: Max Niemayer Verlag, 1927). Several other bodies of literature are written in Aramaic. The best sources for ancient Aramaic inscriptions are: Herbert Donner and Wolfgang Rollig, Kanaandische und Aramdische Inschriften (Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz, 1971-76). John C. L. Gibson, Textbook of Syrian Semitic Inscriptions, vol. 2, "Aramaic Inscriptions" (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1975). Joseph A. Fitzmyer and Daniel J. Harrington, A Manual of Palestinian Aramaic Texts (Rome: Biblical Institute Press, 1978). Arthur E. Cowley, Aramaic Papyri of the Fifth Century B.C. (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1923). Emil G. Kraeling, The Brooklyn Museum Aramaic Papyri (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1953). G. R. Driver, Aramaic Documents of the Fifth Century B.C. (Oxford: Clarendon Press, rev. ed., 1965). Bezalel Porten and Ada Yardeni, Textbook of Aramaic Documents from Ancient Egypt (Jerusalem: Hebrew University, 1986-99). In addition to the glossaries in these works, the following dictionaries may prove helpful: Charles-F. Jean and Jacob Hoftijzer, Dictionnaire des inscriptions semitiques de Vouest (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1965). Jacob Hoftijzer and Karel Jongeling, Dictionary of the North-West Semitic Inscriptions (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1995). Several of the Dead Sea Scrolls are in Aramaic. Many of these texts are collected in: Florentino Garcia Martinez and Eilbert J. C. Tigchelaar, The Dead Sea Scrolls Study Edition (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1997). B. Jongeling, C. J. Labuschagne, and A. S. van der Woude, Aramaic Texts from Qumran (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1976-). Klaus Beyer, Die Aramdischen Texte vom Toten Meer (Gottingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1994-2004). Afterword • 209 The diversity of rabbinic literature, much of which is written in a mixture of Aramaic and Hebrew, and the targumim makes it impossible to provide a definitive list of the materi- al available. Most of the targumim are published in: Alexander Sperber, The Bible in Aramaic (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1959-73). E. G. Clarke, Targum Pseudo- Jonathan of the Pentateuch (Hoboken, NJ: Ktav Publishing House, 1984). Michael L. Klein, The Fragment-Targums of the Pentateuch According to their Extant Sources (Rome: Biblical Institute Press, 1980). Alejandro Diez Macho, Neophyti I (Madrid: Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientificas, 1968). The best available tools for working with this material are: Marcus Jastrow, A Dictionary of the Targumim, the Talmud Babli and Jerusalmi, and the Midrashic Literature (New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1903; reprinted often). Michael Sokoloff, A Dictionary of Jewish Palestinian Aramaic of the Byzantine Period (2nd ed.; Ramat Gan: Bar-Ilan University Press; Balti- more: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2002). Michael Sokoloff, A Dictionary of Jewish Babylonian Aramaic of the Talmudic and Geonic Periods (Baltimore, London: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2002). Michael Sokoloff, A Dictionary of Judean Palestinian Aramaic (Ramat Gan: Bar-Ilan University Press, 2003). The Syrian church and its adherents also produced a vast literature in the Syriac dialect. The best available dictionaries for this dialect are: C. Brockelmann, Lexicon Syriacum (Hallis: Saxonum, 1928). R. Payne Smith, Thesaurus Syriacus (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1879; supple- ment by J. P. Margoliouth, 1927). Reference tools for other dialects of Aramaic include: Takamitsu Muraoka and Bezalel Porten, A Grammar of Egyptian Aramaic (2nd ed.; Leiden: E. J. Brill, 2003). 210 • An Introduction to Aramaic Friedrich Schulthess, Lexicon Syropalaestinum (Berlin: Georg Reimer, 1903). Ethel Drower and R. Macuch, A Mandaic Dictionary (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1963). J. A. MacLean, A Dictionary of the Dialects of Vernacular Syriac (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1901). Gotthelf Bergstrasser, Glossar des neuaramdischen Dialekts von MaHula (1921). Helmut Ritter, Turoyo: Die Volkssprache der syrischen Christen des Tur^Abdin (Beirut: Orient-Institut der Deutschen Morgenlandischen Gesellschaft, 1976). Rudolf Macuch, Grammatik des samaritanischen Aramaisch (Berlin: De Gruyter, 1982). In recent years, scholars have begun to compile a Comprehensive Aramaic Lexicon, which will embrace the entire language. As work proceeds on this project, a variety of tools and reference works are being generated; already available is the first part of An Aramaic Bibliography by Joseph A. Fitzmyer, S.J., and Stephen A. Kaufman (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1992). Other tools can be found on the Lexicon's Web site at http://call.cn.huc.edu. You may also wish to read some general descriptions of the Aramaic languages. Broad surveys of this type include: Eduard Yechezkel Kutscher, "Aramaic" in Current Trends in Linguistics, ed. Thomas A. Seboek (The Hague: Mouton, 1970), vol. 6, pp. 347^12. Eduard Yechezkel Kutscher, "Aramaic," Encyclopedia Judaica (Jerusalem: Keter Publishing, 1972), vol. 3, pp. 259-87. Joseph A. Fitzmyer, S.J., "The Phases of the Aramaic Language" in A Wandering Aramean: Collected Aramaic Essays (Chico, CA: Scholars Press, 1979) pp. 57-84. Klaus Beyer, The Aramaic Language (Gottingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1986). Stephen A. Kaufman, "Languages (Aramaic)" in The Anchor Bible Dictionary (New York: Doubleday, 1992), vol. 4, pp. 173-78. With these tools and the grammar you have already learned, you can begin to explore any part of the huge corpus of Aramaic literature. Good luck! Paradigms Nouns and Adjectives Singular Plural Masculine Feminine Absolute ■ft? ns'pn Construct "fa ns'pn Determined xzibQ aro'pQ Absolute P'po p"pD Construct '5^5 n:>nn t : - Determined T - t t : - Pronouns ^dependent Possessive Suffixes Pronouns Singular Nouns Plural Nouns Singular Masculine Feminine Masculine Feminine nan nsja "VFCfyl ntfs "np'pa natj; (ornn^) ^jneJa 'IC 1 ' '? TpttfB n^p'pa 'FUHl 'dibJb •orro'pa 'PHtf? ■onp'pa wn nnts's nrnrj'pQ 'nine's nnp'pa «"7l rneja nrro'pa rrnjpB nnp'pa Plural nam.** *ut0b wn^a wntfa wnp'po JIMR (DF13«) Db-jBJB □bplD'pQ Dbntf? Dbnp'pD 1FUHI p"ltfB prns'pa p^tf? pnp'pa ian (jian or |ia») DfTjEJB Dnnn'pa annca annp'pa ■pas iniJDs inrnD'po pnttfs jnnp'pa 211 212 • An Introduction to Aramaic Demonstratives Singular Near (this, these) Masculine Feminine Nl tn J Plural ■p j?Jfc (a/so ^N anJ Far (that, those) Masculine Feminine Masculine and Feminine n i5i i^ Numerals CARDINAL Masculine Feminine 1 in mn t - : 2 Oltf) p.FI Cn-in) pp 3 t t : n^n 4 nia-]N 22*18 5 sopn 2Jarj 6 nntzJ T ' ns 7 nyip intf 8 rrcan man 9 nreJp vm 10 t : - "■foj* 20 p^ 30 p"?? 100 n^a 200 proa 1,000 1^ 10,000 131 ORDINAL "Dip ]p Ti^n T Verbs Paradigms • 213 D H PERFECT Singular 1 nana rteij? na'psri 2 masculine nana (or nan?) rtaf? na^n feminine "Finn? "n'pap "np^ri 3 masculine ana ^ tD^'n feminine nana n'pap na'psri Plural 1 wans ttfpSj? wefrtfn 2 masculine ■pnana pn'paijP linp^n feminine ]nana 1^5p jna^ri 3 masculine nna ^ap iBbtfn feminine nana t - : rfaaj? na^ri IMPERFECT Singular 1 anaa ^apN a 1 ?^ 2 masculine arpn ^apn a'ptpnn feminine •panan l^R I^BJnn 3 masculine ana 1 ^ tD^rrj feminine arpn ^apn a'ptpnn Plural 1 ana] %P1 efrtfrq 2 masculine •panan l^apn •pa^nn feminine pnari l^pn •ja'pBJnpi 3 masculine ]^y )^?P1 l^ 1 ?^^ feminine laro 1 : fr^ Itp^n'; 214 An Introduction to Aramaic G D H PARTICIPLE Singular masculine ■■ T ^5i*?0 CD^nn feminine rnro T T rtepn na'psno Plural masculine rro l^apn ptp'ptfriia feminine pro 1^3? jtp'psjrra IMPERATIVE Singular masculine nns ■ap CQ^BJn feminine 'std ^ ■»ej l ?BJn Plural masculine inn? ftsij? itQ^n feminine rnro rtap ncD^EJn INFINITIVE nron rfap nco'pEn Passives Paradigms • 215 D H PERFECT Singular 1 rQTD n^?3j? no'pipn 2 masculine FQTD t : ■ : Fl'pSj? T •-. feminine 'FEITD ■'pi'psi? Tiefrtfri 3 masculine yro ^ cfrtfn feminine raro rfrajP ra'pttfn Plural 1 k&td w'paj? wefrtfri 2 masculine linens )1Fl^3j? •pncp'pEn feminine IFQT13 1^ intp^rr 3 masculine htd ftaj? IB'ptffl feminine nrnna n'paj? ntpbitfri PARTICIPLE Singular masculine a'na ^api? to'ppno feminine nrnna nbapo t : : - : Plural masculine "paTD T^app ptp'ptfnp feminine P^3 I'papo Itp^nrp 216 An Introduction to Aramaic Prefix-t Conjugations 3FCPT Gt Dt Singular 1 rtppnn rtannn 2 masculine Ftepnn rp'piinnrT feminine Ti'ptDprn 'rtannn 3 masculine ^fifprn ^snnn feminine rtepnn rtannn Plural 1 na'pcpprirr rcfannn 2 masculine pFtepnn •pFtannn feminine )Fi^Bj?riri )n^annn 3 masculine i^ejpnn i^annn feminine n'ptppnn rtannn 3 ERFECT Singular 1 ^c?pntarp i^a : n rr^an NOTE that 3d person forms of ilTI begin with b in the imperfect. Glossary Numbers in parentheses are the chapters in which these words are first assigned to be learned. Hebrew words which appear in the texts presented in this book are also listed here (marked with an asterisk). K dk father (14; p/wraZ DrQK) "na perish, be lost H— destroy, kill (14) ma desire (Htn) ]2$ stone (15) »ma» temple rna$ letter (3) pa then (5) 031N force tin flame m» heat (18) bm go (7) )m* ear m brother (28) ina grasp tn»* grasp "HON after (12) **"10» another (16) inns I -t: t last |-jn« another (13) ]STJ0nR satrap (25) "Q^ organ •fra if ft'N tree (20) "ttTK lamb IC 1 ?^ frightful "pK if »np"K glory TP« there is (9) NnrvN woman (see iirON) ^D» eat N^N except n^ these (14) rty* god (3) t>§ behold (20) owbn * god T'i's these (14) "fix those (7) *]*?§ thousand D8 mother T ■-. nation ]DK be faithful (H) (24) passive participle- -|?Tip ]DK amen 1QN say (6) »no» handmaid H3« 1(10) •p2K they (11) BJ13« human rams t : - - : we (4) |"3^ they, those (/)( 11) rrp"^ anguish 03N trouble (G) 220 Glossary • 221 rpK face, nose (30) a vhK man (10) T .. -2 in (4) (nrn&) rus you (m 5) (11) mn be evil nraN wife (30) pa on account of ™ you (f s) (11) nna disturb (D) (20) pFi3») •prqK you (mp) (11) Nnma senior IFOK you (/» (11) NO^p-D club RTjBOR exactly, diligently (11) 1 ETD* embarrass (Dt) "1D« prohibition (26) inn examine J?N wood T inn choose ntt nose, anger 1 also naa stop (5) G — intransitive J>3¥8 finger (23) ra"i« four (17) D — transitive )in« purple '3 dialect form q/TTa m$ behold cnnn s a school house mis behold r 3 between (12) n« cedar HT3 fortress nn« lion (25) tfa evil (28) "pa long ni5 house (5) -[is wait { 3 af c el— "pTK) nna cry nnn : K duration vbn wear out (D) nnona widow i^a tax JHSJ earth (8) p* son rrinH bottom ma build (4) &£"■)£ earth run seek, pray (14) (N)2JN fire (29) ira petition fElN foundations ^a master (5) p»K beams npa search (9 — D) iniontiN recognize na son (6; "[B — p cstr) T sign na field (16) nriK come (G) (6); na create (H/A— bring, 18) T* bless, kneel (D) (22) •pn$ furnace (17) nana blessing nntb palm P thus (28) nb surely t : colleague (7) npb take 1D]3 coin ]f? language W?33 thus (11) 2J33 gather D oon slaughter -a from ^P? silver (9) nsft hundred 1«? now (4) hand n^ft T " vessel (8) scroll nso hid deny bind (D) (18) become distressed (Gt) 13ft nana TiTft overthrow, throw down (D) altar (29) dwelling (22) rra ro : t herald proclaim (H) throne (24) n^Hft nft nft province (7) what(ever) (10) how aro write (3) ■no water arp writing (11) wall mo jlTft die (31) food b pTft basin ^nft hit -^ to, for, direct obj. marker (3) nma appearance *"? not (4) nana camp ^ heart (21) ns^nft urgent win 1 ? incense ^nnft grain offering (cf. nn3ft) tzJnb garment NCDft reach (21), bring (H) P"> whiteness bbm roof sn'p wear (23) DJTPD anything (cf. DUTJD) tf? except, therefore (13) a w a water rf? to, with (29) kttd word tiit? see Tin IDft sell nt6 evil n^a angel an 1 ? meal (23) nbQ word, thing (13) W night (25) 1* king (3) 226 An Introduction to Aramaic *Q% reign (11) "TO flee bbn speak (D) (26) ■^yfrj! dunghill (10) P who(ever) (6) 113 fire (17) P from (9) P" suffer damage after, because "H ]Q era copper (15) immediately T |Q nn] descend (21) JHJQ understanding 3 afel (nn$) deposit Din]Q anything (c/ DUTQ) •7B3 lift (22) ran count (G; D — appoint) "IB2 guard nrap grain offering 003 slaughter (32) MB withhold DD3 property 1DQ deliver (31) 103 panther n^O belly 3303 take (30) ni^Q middle HD3 lift 81? master (24) 1 D3 test TIP rebellion ^23 fall (16) TJQ rebellious (4) pS3 go out (8) DTID height (32) nj?B3 expenses Q1Q tear off 2JD3 self (29), will n2JQ oil (noun) P radiance, bloom ntzta anoint (verb) HK3 quarrel ns^o bed TCS3 win (D — distinguish self) KF10B banquet 3 prophesy (Dt) prophecy prophet rrsa ^3 splendid save (H) N333 t : Kj?3 u3 |"P3 12?3 pure human (31) women (29) eagle 133 nra flow be willing (Dt) (12) flee ]M3 )H3 letter give (4) m] banish rnra sheath 'poo endure ct] destroy 1330 intend rrns illumination T30 bow down (16) "ina river s 30 multiply (H) Glossary • 227 139 prefect ty Most High (21) "130 close (26) ■p"^ Most High 110 arrange bbu enter (14) fjio end nbu eternity (5) moo Satan vbv rib po knife xrbx burnt offering (29) 'POO look (Dt) DV with (12) nbo liturgical term nv people, nation (12) pbo go up (26) "nor pillar (TOil (H) sacrifice p'ELS? deep rbo flour bQV exert oneself, toil ISO book (11) "IQU load ISO scribe (3) "lQi? wool TV chief ms> answer (13) rrrno hidden thing m cloud ino tear down (G) »]1SJ branch V 'Si? foliage (20) ps wood "02 servant "IpU uproot (Gt — be uprooted) nTar work, service (5) T enemy 12V do, make (5) rail! willow IV until (12) "I&H? ten (17) mi) pass away (22; H — remove) p?y twenty n* time (13) ntix intend mw haste riEtoriK (Gt) be thought Tfr\J) youth Tnr ready (18) *]ii> bird p'flJ? old wapir trickery w^r on, above (32) 2 r-y eye (30) "S and 001? refuse P s cry out "a? on, concerning, to, ns * mouth against (3) nns T V governor (6) n'pi? pretext (25) -jrs plate n'pr above 10S destroy nfpi: burnt offering (29) K*7S trick 228 An Introduction to Aramaic a 1 ?? half ibz discord xnybs division (= Babel) nbz> worship, serve (17) }^z worship VbB divided, undecided DB mouth (22) oa palm (of hand) K'TIOS blemish 'TOB cut stone ^n? iron (15) OmB struggle 013 divide p")B save -pma commander EDEJB extend 12JD interpret (D) (23) 12J2 interpretation (13) □3^2 message, word (10) nns open (28) K nn^ want (21) =QS wish, property :m be wet (Dt) (21) nth true pTK righteousness "i?T3 merit -mn neck □ik fast TU pivot (of door) rte pray (D) (10) rte make prosper (H) (26) d 1 ?? statue, form (15) "ira pain "1315 bird KIB^ morning **% just as (11) t ?3p'? opposite, corre- sponding to (12) -1 bnp b'D inasmuch as, because, although na* 5 ! 'pnp ^3 thereupon (14) bnp receive (D) (25) EHj? holy (20) nip t|t: before (5) nip do early (H) "QTP formerly (26) WQTp/tnp first (17) tramp the Holy One mp arise, stand (G) (6) H — establish Wp D — swear □"pnn Dt— be fulfilled (»)Tlp city m delicate btop kill (G/D) (18) rap cut "ICDp rise in circle oip summer Q'p enduring D$> statute (25) □"p standing Wp twig ^ sound (17) mp buy, acquire *pp be angry pp cut down HKp end (22) mp/tnp call, read (23) 3-ip approach (26) (D/H — sacrifice) Glossary • 229 =hp war 031 trample on PT offering p'p-1 soft rnp city (4) □Eh write (24) Pi? horn (17) to n? piece lf~p b'Dft accuse ncp elder safe) grow great (19) 1 info many, large (8) Eftn head (chief) (7) "iiato side •p^P 2J«1. complete D"»to issue, give (lit. "place") (6) account or essential □,pcp Ct? issue decree or contents pay attention 11 great (7) tofo consider (Dt) nn grow (20) WtD hate ill myriad, 10,000 IBft? hair (19) n 1 greatness (24) ppin sackcloth (sing. pE7) 'rrm general epfo burn T?1 fourth (16) into winter im quarter \D l^n-inn chiefs an pleasant ^kej ask (12) m anger (H) ins remnant (11) T31 anger rattf praise (D) (14) ^-1 foot (15) rrncp flame mi assemble (25) (H) mntf/rnitf seven (17) nn wind (20) pno leave alone, abandon (10) on rise (24) Gt — be transferred an height mti be like (G) (24) •pn run meJ place (32) n secret (14) 1210 beauty Pth distant (10) qqe; wander am love (30) are; save (18) I'QDI compassion (29) RT# finish )om Merciful One "T2? remainder HDI throw, impose (17) TOtf find (H) (23) W"! wish RnTDItf Divine Presence ]"i"i?1 thought (23) ^Dttf completion 230 An Introduction to Aramaic bbiv complete (11) nbti blasphemy *bti negligence nbti send (3) b^ej rule (16) Itp'ps dominion (19) Q^EJ authorized, mighty (12) wbti perfect •pti throw (H) (31) nbti perfect nbti be finished (24) (H— del T peace (5) nti name (6) (pi nriD0) ioej exterminate (H) RfOBJ heavens (8) DDE) be appalled DDTO'K y itpol c el UQ0 hear, obey (17) 000 serve (D) 000 sun Kn0o»0 fa twilight F tooth m0 change (13) m0 year (8) naes sleep p]0 choke (Gt) nxti talk (Gt) T T hour (18) TS0 beautiful bzv be low (24) 122? please, be beautiful (25) p0 leg (29) ai0 family me? loosen (19) inti prosperous 010 root eliver) n© six (11) (rntpN) nn0 drink (23) n man fig Tan breakable Tan break (29) am return (intrans) (22) H — return (trans), reply Tn ox ninn underneath (12) nnn* instead of ibn snow ^n weapon Ti^n third (16) n^n thirteen n'pn three (17) an'pn/Ti'pn ruler (24) ]Tfrn thirty rran wonder (H) nan there (9) rnon eight (17) Tan palm ran here (29) •on tell Tinn/pjn second (17) Tj?e strong (5) ^pn weigh pn prepare (H — restore) |Tnn/pn two (28) Ti?rn.n twelve (17) U"1F1 gate i?2?n nine (17) Answer Key Note: English translations are rather literal in order to facilitate comparison with the original. Translations into Aramaic have generally been made in the most straightforward way possi- ble; however, other renderings may be equally correct. In lessons 28-32 the vocalization of some words and names that do not exist in the Bible is uncertain. Chapter 3 P. 11 Ezra 4:8-11 Rehum and Shimshai, the scribe, wrote a letter concerning Jerusalem to King Artaxerxes. This is the letter which they sent to King Artaxerxes. (1) The scribe wrote the letter to them. (2) God made heaven. (3) The king said concerning Jerusalem. P. 12 (4) The king sent the letter to the scribe. (5) God said from heaven . . . (6) This scribe perished under the earth. (7) God said that the earth is the king's. Chapter 4 P. 16 Ezra 4:12-16 Let it be known to the king that the Jews are building Jerusalem, the rebellious city. Now, let it be known to the king that if that city will be built, they will not give tax [i.e., the tax will not be paid]. We have sent and informed the king concerning this, that he search in the book of memoranda and [where] you will find that that city is a rebellious city. We are informing the king that if that city will be rebuilt, you will not have a portion in Trans-Euphrates. 231 232 An Introduction to Aramaic P. 17 Aramaic Hebrew (guard) "ICD3 "EC (three) rbft Gffrtf (lie) nmD 3T3 (advise) CW P" (arm) I?"1"TM jy'nT^s (sit, dwell) 3rr 3ET (gold) nn^i nrir (land) m_K p« (sacrifice) PD -7 ! rn$ Aramaic Hebrew (there is) TPK ET (snow) abn a'pc (summer) CD^P f ^p (unit of weight) ^PPl ^PEJ (memorandum) ppl P" 1 -^ (ox) Tin lie (riddle) n"TTIK rnn (new) nirj sin (return) HD 310 (six) HE) 2J2J P. 18 (1) We are building the city. (2) The scribe sent that letter. (3) You will find God in the rebellious Jerusalem. (4) They have no portion in Trans-Euphrates. (5) Now it is known that the Judeans will give tax to the king. (6) Rehum wrote this memorandum. Chapter 5 P. 22 Ezra 4:17-24 The king sent the message to Rehum, the chief official, and Shimshai, the scribe, who dwell in Samaria and the remnant of Trans-Euphrates: Peace! The letter which you sent has been read before me. Rebellion has been made in that city from eternity, and strong kings have been over Jerusalem. Now issue a decree to stop the building of that city. Then, after the letter of King Artaxerxes was read before Rehum and Shimshai, the scribe, they went to Jerusalem to the Jews, and stopped them. Then the work on the house of God which is in Jerusalem stopped. \^7 There is no Canaanite shift in Aramaic, so it preserves a where Hebrew has o. TQX? Semitic d becomes K in Hebrew, but V in Aramaic; also words that are segholates in Hebrew often have only a single vowel under their second consonant in Aramaic. Answer Key • 233 NT There is no Canaanite shift in Aramaic, which represents Semitic d with "I rather than T as in Hebrew. iH~[N Aramaic represents Semitic d with "I rather than T as in Hebrew, in which a often shifts to 6. f?T\ Semitic t is represented as D in Aramaic rather than 2? as in Hebrew, where words with one vowel become segholates rather than having a vowel under the second consonant as in Aramaic. ■ptpSEJ There is no Canaanite shift in Aramaic (for the plural ending V- where Hebrew has W-, see chapter 6). "1H3 Pretonic a reduces in Aramaic rather than lengthening as in Hebrew. DID Aramaic uses D for Semitic t, where Hebrew uses 27. P. 23 H27 Semitic t is represented with D in Aramaic but with 27 in Hebrew. "ISO There is no Canaanite shift in Aramaic, so a corresponds to Hebrew o; the a where Hebrew has e is due to the consonant "1. ] , 27'] Pretonic a reduces in Aramaic, but lengthens in Hebrew (for the plural end- ing V- rather than Hebrew W-, see chapter 6). Din Semitic t is represented as D in Aramaic rather than as 27 as in Hebrew; note also the reduction of pretonic a, which is lengthened in Hebrew. "1,1727 Pretonic a is reduced in Aramaic but lengthened in Hebrew. "00 Pretonic a is reduced in Aramaic but lengthened in Hebrew (the presence of a where Hebrew has e is due to the consonant ~l). Dn"! Aramaic represents Semitic d with "I rather than T as in Hebrew and reduces pretonic a, which is lengthened in Hebrew. "12717 Words that are segolates in Hebrew typically have one full vowel under their second consonant in Aramaic. HN a does not shift to 6 in Aramaic as it does in the Canaanite languages. "OH Semitic t_ is represented as D in Aramaic rather than 27 as in Hebrew. d?H a does not shift to 6 in Aramaic as it does in Hebrew. (1) The Master of Eternity wrote a letter to strong kings. (2) We are building a house in the rebellious city. (3) Then they stopped (the) building in Jerusalem. 234 An Introduction to Aramaic P. 24 (4) Issue a decree before the scribe after the letter has been read. (5) Now they will not give (i.e. assign) work over the Jews. (6) The strong kings went to the city. (7) God's decree is read before the master. (8) Then Shimshai said to stop building this house. (9) They made rebellion in Jerusalem. (10) Issue peace for them from eternity. (11) We are informing the scribe that work on the house of the king has stopped. Chapter 6 P. 27 Ezra 5:1-5 Then the prophets Haggai and Zechariah, the son of Iddo, prophesied to the Jews who were in Judah and in Jerusalem with the name of the God of Israel over them. Then Zerubbabel, the son of Shealtiel, and Jeshua, the son of Jozadak, arose to build the house of God which is in Jerusalem. Tattenai, the governor of Trans-Euphrates, and Shetar-Bozenai came to them and said (lit. saying) thus to them: "Who issued a decree to build this house? What (lit. who) are the names of the men who are building this?" But their God's eye was over the Jews, and they didn't stop them. P. 28 (1) 1% (2) mao (3) nrrap SINGULAR PLURAL Absolute Construct Determined Absolute Construct Determined P. 29 mi efrn vtifon ■p$n 'Vfal. vMton R'33 VCD* t ■ : yw\ ^ RW33 lap ISO tnap p?P "12D Knap nTar riTis? Rrrrar t : ■ - : ]TliJ nTar t t ■ - : rnp rnp wnnj? n? nnp wrnp P. 30 p6n t v: T V! Ml^U rrfm "n^ ^n^ ISO - T ISO - T t : t n a ° "ISO »HE30 t - : t .anm nrrat? nnp tnap (l) .K'p'pD Clp 'jHnfcP ^53 IQp (2) .tnnr-oi> br KFnaa in 1 ?© (3) .^^-12?^ ^ NrfrN »n» (4) ■■ t : ■ - T T V! T -: x / Answer Key • 235 P. 31 .Rrnp D^tfrr I'B ian (5) .DiJB Dtp ^2 (6) .snnp naa winin (7) ?pDEh -nrr rnna p (8) Chapter 7 P. 34 Ezra 5:6-10 The letter which Tattenai, governor of Trans-Euphrates, and Shetar-Bozenai and his colleagues who were in Trans-Euphrates sent to King Darius, and this was written in it: "To King Darius, peace (over) everything. Let it be known to the king that we went to Judah, the province, to the house of the great God. Then we asked these elders, we said to them, 'Who issued the decree to you to build this house?' And we also asked them their names so that we would write the name of the men who are at their heads." t : t Frnn d -rrnn h nmnn h : t t ^t?W. G rbm G ths/tin h V?D D nnati d •prrarj G runa G R303 D pao G 032 G m~rn H t>VT] H nropn H ]iQ~inn G ^23 G ■'sunn D ^£32 D rn.i>np H rnTann G n'pcpjpnn G pTiQ h ]"2J3 : 5nO D n^m^\Q d ipy d fide;'-] g ^rnnn g •fp'prTp d njprnwi d |^2KQ D P. 35 .arm-i anno 1 ? rcfrm (l) t t: ■:■ t : - ~: x ' .niaa t^-na^i am 1 ? ma» in'?© (2) ■■ - : t - : ■-. : t : - t : ■ - : v / ."^N 8»2EJ BJ»1 0£TT jIQ (3) .Gil'? jh"! «Qi?tD ,_ I pOK » 9 2Ci (4) .Dbtfn; by nth® Nip (5) JOTD frfe (6) 236 An Introduction to Aramaic Chapter 8 P. 38 Ezra 5:11-15 They replied, "We are the servants of the God of heaven and earth and are building the house which was built many years before this. Our ancestors angered the God of heaven, and He gave them to Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon, the Chaldean; and he tore down this house and exiled the people to Babylon. In the first year of Cyrus, the king of Babylon, Cyrus the king issued a decree to build this house of God; and the vessels of the house of God which Nebuchadnezzar removed from the temple which is in Jerusalem to the temple of Babylon — Cyrus the king took them out from the temple of Babylon and they were given to Sheshbazzar, and he said, 'These vessels — deposit them in the temple which is in Jerusalem and let the house of God be rebuilt.'" P. 39 P. 40 rnap rfrtM HQ2h nn^Ej H"pi? n 1 ?^ nptzh nri^tzJ Trnr 'P 1 ?^ TCItf") •'na'ptp "Oi? ^123 at] n'pp mar rfptM nam nn^p anar itfpEq VCDIt] t : - : pn"|nr ^FfrlM ]WBItir\ •prills? ]n~rrii7 7n*pt?q ]OT*] fnn'ptp nar ^03 IDKh in^tzJ rnar n'pcD^ nasi t - : nnbv n^T UT 2 masculine singular nj?T! rT 1 common singular nrr air 3 masculine singular waro ana 1 common plural nro ana 3 masculine plural njriba rte 1 common plural rneu "ICD3 1 common singular ^ ^aa 3 masculine singular np'pp p^D 1 common singular "QJ> "Di? 3 masculine singular P. 41 (1) The king went before the city. (2) We knew that the Master of Eternity was in Jerusalem. (3) I wrote a letter to the king's house. Answer Key • 237 P. 41 (cont.) (4) Then God sent a decree to that province. (5) You gave many servants to the governor of the Jews. (6) Our fathers gave those vessels to Cyrus. (7) The head of the palace was in heaven. (8) Nebuchadnezzar did not take the men out to the land. (9) That great house will be built in one year. Chapter 9 P. 44 Ezra 5:16-6:5 Then Sheshbazzar came; he gave (i.e. laid) the foundations of the house of God which is in Jerusalem, and from then until now it was being built, but was not completed. And now if it is good to the king, let it be searched in the king's treasure house that is there in Babylon if a decree was issued by King Cyrus to build the house of God in Jerusalem; and let him send the king's wish con- cerning this to us. Then King Darius issued a decree, and they searched there in Babylon, and a scroll was found and thus was written in it: "In the first year of King Cyrus, King Cyrus issued a decree (that) the house of God in Jerusalem be built, and the expenses will be given (i.e. paid) from the king's house, and they will return the gold and silver vessels of the house of God which Nebuchadnezzar brought out from the temple which is in Jerusalem." ■■ T D2?1 T]Q ■^1? ^3 o@~) T1.Q ■^ vtysi RDBh RT]B t : It t : t nQEh rn-ic? n^Bp t : It rbtsa naeh nine? n^tpj? t : ■ t KTIDBh t : ■■ t RrrpQ Nn^cap t : ■ |t f'PtM TO®"] PT? r^i? ,l ?tp3 "0^1 TH? ^ R^BU KJQKh KH.nC? ^tpj? fttM ]OEh )T]B fi*?i? rtej nQEh nnnc? n^Bp t : It Rrfreu aniaeh »mitD mn^Qp 238 • An Introduction to Aramaic P. 45 ^B3 D"»BJ"j T"]B 'TBp •^tM D'Eh T")B ^Qj? R^»B« NG'tf") RT")? N^Bp rfroa t : HTTp n^Bp nTB3 nQ"2Jl rnntp htbp t : ■ : »nQ , 2j~i «F1T"ICD t : ■ : wn'p'Qj? 'p'T'tM T'D'tPl |"T1P TTBP ^t?^ Vf] 'Tic? "TBp R^vtM R^tf"! Knnip K 9 T TBp fr^ |(?"2J*1 IT"! 1 ? fr^i? rfrtpa nQ^'i HTItp rfTBp wn^-caa Nitrizh RrnntD NrfrEp (1) Nebuchadnezzar says that the city will be given to Jews. (2) A big scroll is sent to the governor of the province. (3) The king knew that (the) work stopped. P. 46 (4) We know (how) to build this house. (5) There is gold in the treasure house there in Babylon. (6) The men searched if good silver was given to the scribe. .jirr^ lap N>-a? (l) ?jon3"niJ |o tarn.! N295 nbv p (2) .tiffin) i33i nn? , rTN (3) .□n'? wra Knrr (4) .Krnp 1 ? vnsio nn$ (5) Chapter 10 P. 50 Ezra 6:6-12 Now Tattenai, governor of Trans-Euphrates, Shetar-Bozenai, and their col- leagues, be (i.e. stay) far from there. Leave the work of the house of God, and from me a decree is issued for the Jews to build the house of God, and the Answer Key • 239 expenses will be given (paid) from the king's property to those men that it not stop. And whatever they need for the God of heaven is to be given to them so that they will sacrifice to the God of heaven and pray for the king's life. And from me a decree is issued that any person who changes this message — his house will be made a dunghill concerning this, and may God overthrow any king or nation which extends its hand to destroy the house of God which is in Jerusalem. I, Darius, have issued (the) decree." P. 50 P. 51 Aramaic Hebrew English br* •P* go •>™ & there is t - t v: otfrN god rno3K lanaj we T p tree Rin« p« land nriN wa come "13 15 son nrn nai sacrifice arn ant T T gold n?i P'-i^T memorandum nn nt this irn T mi\ arm ~n "W§ one FT, WT known air ]ra give am 3ET dwell nana aja lie kid 1 ? rrrr it will be □tf? n C [i ? to them nra IT go down 240 An Introduction to Aramaic P. 51 (cont.) Aramaic Hebrew English pa] WP go out pbo nbv go up ISO *i?0 document tnao ision (the) scribe P. 52 nau nto do rfrs nar work B?j? n? summer an T big wato an many T Dfrtf peace K'QE) Q'Q© heaven nc ©2j six am ais return nin "llO ox a?n a 1 ??? snow n*7Fi T three ^pFl ^ weight nn ■»3BJ two .tna ]Q ■ppTn ra (l) .snso'p rnaa nana (2) .Krrjp'p Rn 1 ^ cans n?© (3) .033) 2J']« KHna Efrn (4) man ^b ipaeJ (5) .«i7n« rfain 1 ? wnbxb ian r^ua (6) t : - tt-: t-t ■■ ■ I ■ - - : vy Answer Key • 241 Chapter 11 P. 56 Ezra 6:13-18 Then Tattenai, governor of Trans-Euphrates, Shetar-Bozenai, and their col- leagues did exactly as King Darius sent. The Jews are building and succeeding according to the prophecy of Haggai and Zechariah, the son of Iddo; and they completed (it) at the command of the God of Israel and the command of Cyrus and Darius and Artaxerxes, king of Persia. And he finished this house on the third day of the month Adar, which is the sixth year of King Darius' reign. And the children of Israel, the priests, and the Levites and the rest of the exiles made a dedication of this house of God with joy. And they established the priests and the Levites over the service of God, who is in Jerusalem, according to the writing of Moses' book. P. 57 (1) FUN You sacrificed an ox to God. He knew that the elders are in the province. You gave the book to a governor. You wrote a letter. They fell to the earth. rnmtt We went out from the house. H3N or WH I (or she) worship(ed) in Jerusalem. He issued a decree. You sent a message to Babylon. I knew (how) to build a house. They went up to heaven. (12) n]ri]N We sent a scroll to the treasure house. P. 59 (1) There is a palace in the large city. (2) You are priests of the God of heaven. (3) The house of God is in Jerusalem. (4) The man does not have a head. (5) Zerubbabel is governor of the Jews. (6) Thus is it written in the book of Darius: We are praying to the earth. (7) You are a king of peace. (8) Then they finished the work of a strong house. (1) FUK (2) »in (3) W (4) •pFtiK (5) ian (6) ruraa (7) n?$ (8) vm (9) TUB (10) rua (11) ian 242 • An Introduction to Aramaic P. 60 .nn© Rpaa nar nnaoK wags nobn iq» ^ (l) .KBIT EJim 1 ? NITD^Q ino (2) T : - : v t ; - : t : - t: vy .anaa »{?« aniJtt (3) .Tirra -rvN «*p ^n (4) .nan mrp'? nn'?© isp (5) Chapter 12 P. 64 Ezra 7:12-26 Artaxerxes, king of kings, to Ezra the priest, scribe of the law of God of heav- en: From me a decree is issued that anyone in my kingdom from the people of Israel and their priests and Levites who is willing to go to Jerusalem with you may go. It is sent from before the king to search concerning Judah and Jerusalem according to the law of your God and to bring the king's silver and gold to the God of Israel who is in Jerusalem along with all the silver and gold in the entire province of Babylon to the house of their God which is in Jerusalem. You will diligently buy rams with this silver and sacrifice them in Jerusalem. And whatever is pleasing to you to do with the rest of the silver and gold you may do in accordance with the wish of your God. And deliver the ves- sels which are given to you for your God's house before the God of Jerusalem. And from me, King Artaxerxes, a decree is issued that everything that Ezra, the priest, the scribe of the law of the God of heaven, requests shall be done exact- ly. Everything which is from the decree of the God of heaven will be done for the house of the God of heaven. And (we) inform you that (you) are not autho- rized to impose a tax on all the priests and Levites. And you, Ezra, in accor- dance with the wisdom of your God, appoint judges for the whole people that is in Trans-Euphrates, for all who know the laws of your God, and you shall inform those who do not know. And judgement will be diligently done to all who will not do the law of your God and the law of the king. (1) He asked about the king's law. (2) This people is authorized to bring vessels from the palace. P. 65 (3) Nebuchadnezzar was king of Babylon from eternity. (4) Who is willing to make a dunghill on the earth? (5) You will inform the judge that there will be a rebellion in the province. Answer Key • 243 P. 65 (cont.) .tnn? nv dffinfo ^m (l) .Ra'po'? fra ian farr •n nrja rna rnnn wnnj? (2) .Nap 1 ? aa'po fa «n mrj (3) .baaa Knsp ipati niaij ian (4) .wotfa mn NEftn (5) T _ T . T _. T .. \y Chapter 13 P. 70 Daniel 2:4-13 "King, say the dream to your servants and we will tell its interpretation." The king answered and said to the Chaldeans, "If you will not tell me the dream and its interpretation, you will be made into limbs and your houses will be made a dunghill; but if you do tell the dream and its interpretation, you will receive much glory from before me. Therefore, tell me the dream and its inter- pretation." They answered and said, "Let the king say the dream to his ser- vants, and we will tell the interpretation." The king answered and said, "I know that you are buying time until the time changes." The Chaldeans answered before the king and said, "There is no man who will be able to tell the king's thing. No great king has asked a thing like this of any Chaldean, and the thing which the king asks is difficult; and there is no other except the gods who will tell it before the king." The king became very angry and said to kill all the wise men of Babylon. P. 71 Triro his priests ■^OK your father yon your servants ]innrj»i after them ^ on me fbTPs you are ybv on you Tiirps he is nar with him •'rfps my God t^ opposite you ■■ t v: his God TriDlB before him ijnna after you finir&n. their head firrya between them no© ■■ T he placed him nrfa his house □nnrrac? their names nia his son Tiininri instead of him mn in the midst of her finrfrn the three of them ,i ?a , 'n my palace ]inn* them 244 An Introduction to Aramaic P. 72 •1109 ilia ~ni> to 4 ??? mrf? (l) .anno tiN-fp tra'on K'-na iai? (2) .»nnp ]Q psr toso ]n nanET tqttfs (3) . , Q'?D? n^7" »•? ,_ i rf?Q tp$ (4) .«an^ D2j ]r\b xbs rnna (5) .tna by nn"3 (6) Chapter 14 P. 75 Daniel 2:14-24 Then Daniel sought from the king that he would give him time in order to tell the meaning to the king. Then Daniel went to his house and informed Hannaniah, Mishael, and Azariah, his companions, of the thing and to seek compassion from before the God of heaven concerning this secret that they not kill Daniel and his companions along with the wise men of Babylon. P. 76 Then the secret was revealed to Daniel. Then Daniel blessed the God of heav- en. Daniel answered and said, "Let the name of God be blessed from eternity to eternity, for wisdom and power are His, and He changes the seasons and the times, establishes kings, gives wisdom to the wise. He reveals deep things. I praise You, God of my fathers, for You have given me wisdom and power, and now You have informed me of that which I sought from You so that I could make the king's matter known." Thereupon Daniel went in to Arioch, whom the king had appointed to kill the wise men of Babylon. He went and said thus to him: "Do not kill the wise men of Babylon. Bring me before the king, and I will tell the interpretation to the king." P. 77 (1) We knew these secrets. (2) Who built that palace? (3) The scribe wrote that wisdom is lost from Babylon in the time of Nebuchadnezzar. (4) Daniel entered heaven. (5) Thereupon it was revealed that the king established the governor's head over this city. (6) There is a man who seeks compassion. Answer Key • 245 P. 77 (cont.) xnbK "i am ram mi N3N (l) t t v: ■ tt - - t: t - v/ .vcm rnrm Tpr map nino 4 ? ma o^g (2) *]»j?n ^o ninn ] ,! p« ^nr~ip (3) .nan "^ ar™ ippEJ (4) .»r")« sin jwafe? pawa prr nana$ (5) Chapter 15 P. 80 Daniel 2:25-36 Then Arioch brought Daniel in before the king, and thus he said to him, "I found a man from among the exiles of Judah who will inform the king of the interpretation." The king answered and said to Daniel, whose name was Belteshazzar, "Are you able to inform me of the dream which I saw and its interpretation?" Daniel answered before the king and said, "Wise men are not able to tell the king the secret which the king asks, but there is a God in heav- en (who) reveals secrets, and He has informed King Nebuchadnezzar what will be. And it is not by wisdom that is in me that this secret is revealed to me, but that the interpretation be made known to the king. You, O King, saw a large statue; that statue was big. That statue — its head was of good gold, its breasts and its arms were of silver, its belly and its thighs were of copper, its legs were of iron, its feet partly of iron and partly of clay. You saw until a stone broke off, which was not by hands, and hit the statue on its iron and clay feet and crushed them. Then the iron, clay, copper, silver, and gold were crushed together, and the stone which hit the statue became a big mountain. This was the dream, and we will say its interpretation before the king." P. 81 iao$ p32J« v^m ^ss -I50F1 p-0n efrtfn ^?n paoFi rp.?0Fi •pp'psn l^SFl "rap" PW- tt^ET %'. -lapn p32J'Pl ubm bBr\ fapa pa$ c^'a ^a •p-raon •ppattfn ■pB'ptfF] pSFl napFi IP* IP'pen ftsfl "[H2P 1 WW- •pu'pEr l^? 1 1W- VW- ]^W- f?B' 246 An Introduction to Aramaic P. 82 *»«£] bm "IQ«3 1QK n ^ run mrjn mn itf? mn 3H?3 aro )narn nau 'prfpsr rfrs »np» sip 2 masculine singular or 3 feminine singular 1 common plural 1 common singular 2 masculine singular or 3 feminine singular 3 masculine plural 1 common plural 2 masculine plural 3 masculine plural 1 common singular P. 83 xrm |o ]a« *?J? rna« arowi (i) .nisci nans nppn (2) mbx p ^tj wzftn "ija (3) .^ 9 n pin "i Kspn ^q nm ^i sin? (4) jutik ninn ^ns ttk (5) .nan toTi rqaop 'jwtfa (6) .baaa ttfna ipntf w^irr (7) Chapter 16 P. 87 Daniel 2:37-49 "You are the king, the king of kings, to whom the God of heaven gave the king- dom, and into your hand He has given human beings, animals of the field, and birds of the sky — wherever they dwell — and made you rule over all of them; you are the head of gold. And after you there will arise another kingdom, lower (lit. more earthly) than you, and afterwards a third kingdom of copper which will rule the whole earth. And a fourth kingdom will be as strong as iron, smashing everything. And the feet and toes which you saw, partly of clay and partly of iron, will be a divided kingdom, and the toes of the feet will be part- ly iron and partly clay — part of the kingdom will be strong and part of it will be breakable. And in the days of those kings, the God of heaven will establish a kingdom that will not ever be destroyed; and the kingdom will not be aban- doned to another people, but it will stand forever, inasmuch as you saw that a stone was broken off from the mountain not by hands, and it smashed the iron, the copper, the clay, the silver, and the gold. The great God has informed the king what will be after this." Then King Nebuchadnezzar fell on his face and Answer Key • 247 bowed down to Daniel. The king answered Daniel and said, "Your God is the God of gods and revealer of secrets, since you were able to reveal this secret." Then the king made him rule over the entire province of Babylon and over all the wise men of Babylon. (1) We dwell in a house of gold. (2) The king will rule over the province of Trans-Euphrates. (3) Haggai smashed a strong animal. P. 88 (4) A fourth man came. (5) They will bow to the head of the statue. (6) There are many fingers on Darius' hand. .nba rraa rnro wsron kqvv ie's (l) t v: ■■: t t T - : - _ . \ y .nbti? ]^>aai □ir ,L ?n p f7Eq ian (2) ■NjTrn x-\±> vcbr§ (3) . i rr'?n nans dv nh^ wron mao (4) :im its nrio'? wby (5) Chapter 17 P. 92 Daniel 3:1-12 King Nebuchadnezzar made a statue of gold and sent to gather the prefects and the governors for the dedication of the statue which King Nebuchadnezzar had erected. Then the prefects and the governors gathered for the dedication of the statue which King Nebuchadnezzar had erected and stood before the statue which Nebuchadnezzar had erected, and the herald called out strongly, "Say to you, O peoples, 'At the time that you hear the sound of the horn and all kinds of music, you will fall and bow down to the statue of gold, which King Nebuchadnezzar has erected; and whoever will not fall down and bow will be thrown into the midst of a furnace of burning fire.'" Thereupon, at that time, when all the peoples heard the sound of the horn and all kinds of music, all the peoples fell down, bowing to the statue of gold which King Nebuchadnezzar had erected. Thereupon, at that time, Chaldean men drew near. They answered and said to King Nebuchadnezzar, "O king, live forever. You, O king, issued a decree that every person who hears the sound of the horn and all kinds of music should fall down and bow to the statue of gold, and whoever does not 248 An Introduction to Aramaic fall down and bow will be thrown into the midst of a furnace of burning fire. There are Judean men, Shadrach, Meshach, and Abed-nego — those men have not paid attention to you, O king. They do not worship your god, and they do not bow down to the statue of gold which you erected." p. 93 Emrj + ©on nc + ra"i« rati + n'pn njian + ■prnn vm + in 4 + 5 = vm 7 - ^n = 6 8-^4 = )Tnn 20 + itp^ = 2 8 - 3 = 2?Q[J 1 + 2 = n'pn 2 x 3 = nc 8 + 2 = I>3-|K ©on + 1 = 6 li -9 = ] , rnn 7 + o = jne) n© -4 = 2 17 -JOIN = 13 10 3 = vfTH 2 + rbn = 5 20 x 10 = ynm 4 + 2 = nc 3 2 = rcyn 56 -r 8 = rati 10 - 2 = man 60 + 40 = n^o 17 + 17 =in 24 - naon = 16 19,286 + 13T = 29,286 10 x 2 = pfcHJ 6 + 6 = "ifc»mn P. 94 .KFlpQ EJtTl (Kin) ^QTj? tnaa (1) .wne) nh^ l^HQ «3ri3^ (2) .Nn'pna fn rropn iirj (3) .w$© baap \tbg pa] (4) .bns d^s 1 ? ■prfpa 1 (5) .itera pjr pao tn tpk (6) .tyina'p no-]no in pj? (7) .^IQT , 3T ^3*1^ WDBJ IQH (8) Chapter 18 P. 96 Daniel 3:13-23 Then Nebuchadnezzar said in anger to bring Shadrach, Meshach, and Abed- nego. Then they brought those men before the king. Nebuchadnezzar answered Answer Key 249 and said to them, "Is it true, Shadrach, Meshach and Abed-nego, that you are not worshipping my god and not bowing to the statue of gold which I erected? Now if you are ready to fall down and bow to the statue which I made at the time that you hear the sound of the horn and all kinds of music, you will; and if you do not bow down at that hour, you will be thrown into the midst of the P. 97 furnace of burning fire. And who is the god that will save you from my hands?" Shadrach, Meshach, and Abed-nego answered and said to the king, "Nebuchadnezzar, we do not need to reply to you concerning this matter. If our God, whom we worship, is able to save us from the furnace of burning fire and from your hand, O king, he will save; and if not, let it be known to you, O king, that we are not worshipping your god and not bowing down to the statue of gold which you erected." Then Nebuchadnezzar answered and said to heat the furnace seven times more than is proper to heat it and to bind Shadrach, Meshach, and Abed-nego to throw into the furnace of burning fire. Inasmuch as the king's word was urgent and the fire was heated very much, the fire killed those men who brought up Shadrach, Meshach, and Abed-nego. And those three men — Shadrach, Meshach, and Abed-nego — fell bound into the midst of the furnace of burning fire. Perfect Imperfect P. 98 » 1 J*. l-r> FDTD nran "nnn? pran 3TD ^ra rara nran Nnra an?3 prara •pnran ]rara PW nra inra rnra pra "Qi?Q "033 ipnirl pntD who nm *70* 'PDN Participles Imperc Active Passive ^ra rnra nra rnra t : t t ■ : nra •pnra t^cd nra pra ot? rnra Infinitive nran G infinitive "to make" G imperative 2 masculine plural "leave!" G infinitive "to see" G imperative 2 feminine singular "eat!" 250 An Introduction to Aramaic P. 98 (cont.) *?P TO "10$ 1DN rarua ran Eton Eto syno run &1?P top 10SQ iss G infinitive "to reveal" G imperative masculine singular "say!" G infinitive "to build" G infinitive "to gather" G infinitive "to seek" G infinitive "to call" G infinitive "to interpret" P. 99 .]■*?$ •pErpn anna btspn ^ (l) .tfotfa ins "inuo'p sn'pN Tri ^ ( 2 ) .toft nntp ton nrpn rt (3) .k"tib ara'? ki «nnp Ks'pa nsrj (4) ■Rj?Tn ^inn SIQT b$ UQU? (5) .fria 1 ? Knsnp tnao rrrn (6) .»»ato s'taa rrnzr sar (7) t ■ - t- : ' ■ ■■ : t ~ x ' Chapter 19 P. 102 Daniel 3:24-33 Then King Nebuchadnezzar arose, answered and said, "Did we not throw three men bound into the midst of the fire?" They answered and said to the king, "Surely, O king." He answered and said, "Behold, I see four men free, walk- ing in the midst of the fire, and there is no damage on them. And the fourth resembles a divine being (lit. son of God)." Then Nebuchadnezzar approached the furnace of burning fire. He answered and said, "Shadrach, Meshach, and Abed-nego, servants of God, leave and come (i.e. come out)." Then Shadrach, Meshach, and Abed-nego came out from the midst of the fire. The fire had not ruled their body, nor was the hair of their head scorched. Nebuchadnezzar answered and said, "Blessed is the God of Shadrach, Meshach, and Abed-nego, who sent His angel and saved his servants, who gave their body that they not worship nor bow to any god except their God. And from me let a decree be issued that any people that will say blasphemy concerning the God of Answer Key • 251 Shadrach, Meshach, and Abed-nego — his house will be made a dunghill inas- much as there is no other god like this." Then the king made Shadrach, Meshach, and Abed-nego prosper in the province of Babylon. King Nebuchadnezzar to all peoples who live in the entire land: May your peace grow great. The signs which God did with me — how powerful; His kingdom is an eternal kingdom and His dominion is with every generation. P. 103 P. 104 ^QQ ^D ftaa bun •pDi^ DiJB nnos rati Tina mn ^on ^on t t - : 103 n-nn ~nn rtan 'pnn "W npo R%QQ ^0 "^no ^n Fran H3Q 1C3S0 "I0B ]^3pn taP ^Bj? 'pop •pEJPET 2?Q2? nnos rati •pimo im rfptsp'p *7»t0p "^ ^0 ^1.2J0 mm ^nni bm THO ~no nOSJQ no© active participle masculine singular imperative or perfect 3 masculine plural imperfect 3 masculine plural perfect 1 common singular participle masculine singular imperative or perfect 3 masculine plural infinitive perfect 1 common singular infinitive imperfect 3 masculine singular active participle feminine singular active participle masculine singular perfect 2 masculine singular active participle masculine singular imperfect 2 masculine plural imperative or perfect 3 masculine singular imperfect 3 masculine plural perfect 2 masculine singular active participle masculine plural infinitive imperfect 3 masculine singular active participle masculine singular imperfect 3 masculine plural imperative or perfect 3 masculine plural active participle masculine singular 252 • An Introduction to Aramaic P. 104 {cont.) Perfect Imperfect Participle Imperative n^nn %n$ %W %n n'psn ^nn rtarra t : - : *73fi 'fl'psn ] ,! ?ariFi ^5D ^arr; T'psni? i^an rtan ^snn I'psnn n'pnn rcfran ^am in'pan ^ann infinitive rten rtan i^arr P. 105 .tfal 1 ? W0KT3 ^^ ins 5 (1) .|];-[Q ra"j» ban] -i rr-ir (2) .ytt?^ ma 1 ? fcp 1 ?^ as'pa in 1 : (3) .ri?m wi"!lQ Rnnp patio*? fu« orsn no? (4) .nn tma »ato "i nedse? 1 ? NnaEra wn (5) t: tt: t: ■ t:t: t : - : • \ s .nan ^arj 'n^i wwa rnaa rnpa (6) .Tfebn im $f? rnrr; (7) .w] ]0 Riyfo rneto 1 ? noa wron Rnaa (8) Chapter 20 P. 108 Daniel 4:1-9 I, Nebuchadnezzar, was in my house. I saw a vision and it scared me. The visions of my head disturbed me. A decree was issued from me to bring all the wise men of Babylon before me in order to inform me the interpretation of the dream. Then the magicians and Chaldeans entered, and I said the dream before them, but they did not inform me of its interpretation. At last Daniel, whose name is Belteshazzar like the name of my god and in whom is the spirit of the holy God, entered before me, and I said the dream before him: "Belteshazzar, chief magician, in whom I know is the spirit of the holy God and no secret troubles you, tell the visions of my dream which I saw and its intepretation. I Answer Key • 253 saw visions of my head, and behold a tree in the midst of the earth, and its height was great. The tree grew and its height reached heaven. Its foliage was beautiful, and in it was food for everything. Animal(s) of the field sought shade under it, and birds of the sky dwelt in its branches." P. 109 P. 110 p'PtfO l^n rnrjrfp mn rnrjrq mn n'pspn ^bej 13000 ]on rnprfp H]2J n;inin ^T •pininn rT npnrra P" pnnn P" n^n rte naisnnQ *]sn bB0W 'PDE? wrn m vH-m tin nnoczjn rots nnottfn'p rati tutfrra TO Perfect active participle masculine plural infinitive imperfect 1 common plural infinitive imperative or perfect 3 masculine plural infinitive perfect 1 common plural active participle masculine plural active participle feminine singular imperfect 2 masculine singular or 3 feminine singular perfect 3 masculine singular active participle feminine singular imperfect 3 masculine singular imperative or perfect 3 masculine plural imperative or perfect 3 masculine plural perfect 1 common singular infinitive active participle masculine singular Imperfect Participle Imperative ro"]j?n 3i.pnt? nifpno nn.jpn Fi?T?n ^T?nn nnnpno Tlpn 'Firnpn ■prnpnn nnppn 3*Tj?n^ prnpnp nnpn nrnpn 3Tj?nn PTOT nilfpn N£nj?n sij?™ jinrnpn ]n-ipriFi ]nn~).jpn plpnn Infinitive nrnpn »T?n |i3"!i?n^ rnipri PT?^ 254 • An Introduction to Aramaic P. 110 (cont.) .K'DC?'? NI3D KTp ^j? (1) .tton ninn wgn njnnp arm i^ (2) P. Ill ."'E1SJ3 Nl^tD N3T (3) ■ t: t t-; - .. . . \ / .w^» p nrn ititi mas (4) .ta •'Ej'ip "rnn to 1 ?!? rfpn (5) ntrbs) bmi efrtfir sn^a ,_ t ■rtrn N s acnn (6) ■ -: ■•■ t ■ : - : t t v: ■ | ■ -: T t -••.;- x ' .»n^ dhjp avians wrrrfp Kpao i-idsj (7) Chapter 21 P. 115 Daniel 4:10-19 I saw in visions of my head, and behold a holy one was descending from heav- en. It called and said thus, "Cut down the tree; the animal(s) will flee from under it; but leave its roots in the ground, and it will be watered with dew of heaven. Its heart will be changed (lit. "they will change") from (that of) men, and an animal's heart will be given to it until the living things will know that the Most High is mighty (i.e. rules) over the kingdom of man and gives it to whomever He wants." This is the dream King Nebuchadnezzar saw, and you, P. 116 Belteshazzar, say the interpretation inasmuch as all the wise men of my king- dom are not able to inform me of the interpretation, but you are able since the spirit of the holy God is in you." Then Daniel, whose name is Belteshazzar, was appalled for an hour. The king answered and said, "Belteshazzar, do not let the dream and its interpretation disturb you." Belteshazzar answered and said, "The dream and its interpretation are for your enemies. The tree which you saw, which grew and reached heaven with food for everything in it, under it dwelling animal(s) of the field — you are it, O king, for you grew and your greatness grew and reached heaven." G perfect 3 masculine singular G imperative 2 masculine singular G infinitive G imperfect 3 masculine plural H imperfect 3 masculine plural G active participle masculine singular G imperfect 3 masculine plural G imperfect 2 masculine plural in irp |FDia F Pl^ sip •p-airr -n» V X W 'ps'prp epn ]t>sn ^33 Answer Key • 255 P. 117 np!.n ppn nnin 1IT Dfe) T D'CD Q^np Dip kb?9 run ipa pS3 in$ nriN ^n ^ "iDte -1QN rrain tin ] !|!r !? UT ^SP ^EU H perfect 3 feminine singular H perfect 3 masculine singular G perfect 3 masculine singular H participle masculine singular G imperfect 1 common singular G imperative masculine plural G perfect 3 masculine plural H perfect 3 masculine singular G imperfect 1 common plural H infinitive G imperfect 3 masculine plural G imperfect 3 masculine singular P. 118 mbrj tsbti ra? "n waenn ^t p_$ (l) .ntied mi by nam nnso'? ^ns ma (2) t " ~ t : v t t ~ : ■ t t -: x / ■wnp-T NT *? ^l ^C 1 ( 3 ) .n 1 ? iratf "i ^3 n'pnn mtfa (4) "irq n 1 ? pnnpi rra in in? ran (5) .to iQQisn niJto (6) .to'?? nn'p "32? KQbrj im (7) .k^ij rba vq0 "i 2? ,_ rp nm (8) .\*>Q0b nm "i kj'tk ria (9) .Dii'p rrnncy 1 ? aa'pis (10) Chapter 22 P. 120 Daniel 4:20-34 "And that which the king saw, a holy one descending from heaven and saying, 'Cut down the tree and destroy it, but leave its roots in the earth, and let it be watered with dew of heaven'" — this is the interpretation which reached the king: They will drive you out from mankind, and your dwelling will be with the animal(s) of the field, and they will wet you with dew from the sky. And seven times will pass by you until you will know that the Most High rules over the kingdom of man and He gives it to whomever He wishes. And what they said to leave the roots of the tree — your kingdom is enduring for you because you will know that heaven reigns." Everything reached (i.e. happened to) King 256 • An Introduction to Aramaic Nebuchadnezzar. At the end of twelve months he was walking at Babylon's royal palace. The king answered and said, "Is this not the great Babylon which I built as a royal house?" The word was in the king's mouth when a voice fell from heaven, "To you they say, O King Nebuchadnezzar: 'The kingdom has passed away from you, and they are driving you out from men. And your dwelling will be with the animal(s) of the field, and seven times will pass over you until you know that the Most High is ruler over the kingdom of man, and He will give it to whomever He wishes." At that time he was driven from men, and his flesh was watered from heavenly dew. And at the end of the days, I, Nebuchadnezzar — I lifted my eyes to heaven, and my knowledge returned to me. And I blessed the Most High, and I praised the Ever-living, whose domin- ion is an eternal dominion and whose kingdom is forever. And He does as He wishes with the host of heaven and those who dwell on earth. And there is none who says to Him, "What did you do?" At that time my knowledge returned to me and I was restored to my kingdom, and much greatness was added to me. P. 121 bVTl bbti H perfect 3 masculine singular H passive perfect 3 masculine singular G imperfect 3 masculine singular G perfect 3 masculine plural H perfect 3 masculine plural H infinitive H active participle masculine plural D active participle masculine singular G imperfect 3 masculine singular G perfect 2 masculine singular G participle masculine singular G imperfect 2 masculine singular or 3 feminine singular G imperfect 3 masculine singular f'pns bTVD (by) G active participle masculine plural p. 122 •Nnnp p Nnrjs nip mrjs (l) .j^naa arrrn niio (2) .pfr-n rnu not «i Nsta (3) T -j t ■ t : v y eps "i wa'pa Tj"ini tiit waia-in bw (4) .vrm mrt> Nma» npoarfr ran (5) t ■• : t : - ■ |t t :- : ■• t v ' buij] bbu bun bbu ^v 1 ? mn fin mn ipon pbo njpoan pbo p? 1 ?^ ■pn "^HD -pn TO -pn Fto"! by T ^: by ^n by by ^D^ Answer Key • 257 Chapter 23 P. 125 Daniel 5:1-12 King Belshazar made a big meal and drank wine. Under the influence of the wine Belshazar said to bring the gold and silver vessels which Nebuchad- nezzar, his father, had brought out from the temple which was in Jerusalem and they would drink from them. Then they brought the gold vessels which they had brought out from the temple of the house of God which is in Jerusalem, and they praised the gods of gold and silver, copper, iron, wood, and stone. At that time, fingers of a human hand came out and wrote on the wall of the king's palace, and the king saw the palm of the hand which was writing. Then the king — his splendor changed and his thoughts disturbed him. The king called with strength to bring the Chaldeans. The king answered and said to the wise men of Babylon that, "Any man who will read this writing and tell me its inter- pretation will wear purple and rule third in the kingdom. Then all the wise men of the king entered, but they were not able to read the writing and make its interpretation known to the king. Then King Belshazar was greatly disturbed, and his splendor changed. On account of the king's words, the queen entered P. 126 the drinking house. The queen answered and said, "O king, live forever. Do not let your thoughts disturb you nor your splendor be changed. There is a man in your kingdom in whom is the spirit of the holy God, and illumination and wis- dom like the wisdom of the gods was found in him in the days of your father. And King Nebuchadnezzar, your father — your father, the king, established him as chief of the magicians and Chaldeans inasmuch as great spirit and knowl- edge of interpreting dreams was found in him, in Daniel, whom the king named Belteshazzar. Now let Daniel be called, and he will tell the interpreta- tion." • 126 Rewrite Direct Object 1. K'acnn'? K'acinn it 2. RO'PO 1 ? wa^ri 3. &TB rr N s ]rD P. 127 Rearrange Sentence Translate The king bound the magicians. Daniel interpreted the dream. The men killed the priests. 258 An Introduction to Aramaic P. 128 .mrjb nu inrj intz? (l) .□3H2 nnn? SH3T NiQKinb$ (5) .ten xbynb rrrprfr nsos nb ftwtf (6) .^% nv "i0 rnjri wby mrj bmi (7) .nnna'pi kfuh? 1 ? ^1 ^ m] (8) .ntf •ppi , :n kstjb □ , '?p (9) 260 An Introduction to Aramaic Chapter 25 P. 137 Daniel 5:30-6:10 In that night, Belshazzar, king of the Chaldeans, was killed; and Darius the Mede received the kingdom at the age of 62. It was pleasing before Darius to establish 120 satraps over the kingdom who would be in the whole kingdom, and above them were 3 chiefs, of whom Daniel was one, that these satraps report to them so that the king not suffer damage. Then this Daniel was distin- guishing himself over the chiefs and the satraps inasmuch as an excellent spir- it was in him, and the king intended to establish him over the entire kingdom. Then the chiefs and the satraps sought to find a pretext against Daniel, but they were not able to find any pretext, since he was faithful and no negligence was found concerning him. Then those men said that, "We will not find any pretext in Daniel except if we find a pretext concerning him in his God's law." Then these chiefs and satraps assembled before the king and said thus, "Darius, O king, live forever! All the chiefs of the kingdom and the satraps and the gov- ernors have taken counsel to establish a royal statute that anyone who seeks a petition from any God or man except from you, O king, for 30 days will be thrown into the pit of lions. Now, O king, write a decree (lit. writing) that can not be changed like the law of Media and Persia which will not pass away." Thereupon Darius wrote the decree. P. 138 3TTCT? nrp '■pprin vbn raoy mx "pnnn T n Kferip NO] •pFup^Tn )DT ^snfejp ^DC ■HpCH R"lp pnpiEJ'n plEJ prujnn -Q!> nrantfn roc -nurr 12V l^onsr XQV wmri ma Ip-liT ipn G active participle masculine singular G perfect 3 masculine singular D imperfect 3 masculine singular D perfect 3 masculine singular D active participle feminine singular G perfect 2 masculine plural D active participle masculine singular G imperfect 3 masculine singular G imperfect 2 masculine or 3 feminine singular G imperfect 2 masculine plural G perfect 3 feminine singular G imperfect 3 masculine singular G imperfect 3 masculine plural D perfect 3 masculine plural D imperfect 3 masculine singular Answer Key • 26 1 P. 139 ■pEjasno 033 tyriEr H30 nnrann in K33TP nn ^nnn bin ^rnnn ym D active participle masculine plural D imperfect 3 masculine singular G perfect 3 feminine singular G imperfect 3 masculine singular D imperfect 2 masculine singular or 3 feminine singular G perfect 3 masculine plural P. 140 .N , T t ? ,i ?-2 0$ 3H3 NQ"3n N3N (1) ien waa 1 ? ^ c]*»j?fi »n« (2) .kko"© dtj? iBJasnn wbtieJoij (3) .Kfl-nn unnpa bnjp wars (4) .^dos?'? isp 1 : wcs'na *wns aanr (5) .woa 1 ? nbcspb n^u Knns nua (6) t - : ■-. : t T )- : t ■ t -j v t : v y Chapter 26 P. 144 Daniel 6:11-29 And when Daniel knew that the decree had been written, he went into his house and he knelt, praying before his God three times a day, just as he had done previously. Then those men assembled and found Daniel praying before his God. Then they approached and said before the king concerning the royal prohibition, "Did you not write a prohibition that any man who seeks from any god or man except from you, O king, for 30 days will be thrown into the lions' pit?" The king answered and said, "The thing is certain, like the law of Media and Persia that will not pass away." Then they answered and said before the king that, "Daniel, who is from the children of the exiles of Judah, has not paid attention to you, O king, and to the prohibition that you wrote; and he prays 3 times a day." Then when the king heard the thing, it was very distressing to him. Then those men gathered before the king and said to the king, "Know, O king, that it is a law of Media and Persia not to change any prohibition or statute which the king establishes." Then the king said and they brought Daniel and threw into the pit of lions. The king answered and said to Daniel, "Your God, whom you serve, He will save you." And a stone was brought and put over the mouth of the pit. Then the king went to his palace and his sleep fled (over) him. Then the king arose and in his distress he went to the pit of the lions, and as he approached the pit, the king answered Daniel and said to 262 • An Introduction to Aramaic Daniel, "Daniel, servant of the living God: your God, whom you serve — was He able to save you from the lions?" Then Daniel spoke with the king, "O king, live forever. My God sent His angel, and he closed the lions' mouth, and they did not harm me inasmuch as I was found innocent (lit. innocence was found to me) before Him; and even before you, O king, I have not done damage." Then the king was very pleased (lit. it was very good over the king), and he said to bring Daniel up from the pit. And Daniel was brought up from the pit, and no harm was found on him since he had faith in his God. And the king said and they brought those men who had accused Daniel and threw them, their sons, and their wives into the pit of the lions; and they had not reached the bot- tom of the pit when the lions overpowered them. Then King Darius wrote to all the peoples who dwelt in all the land, "May your peace be great. A decree is issued before me that in every dominion of my kingdom they will fear the God of Daniel, since He is the living God and enduring forever; and He saves His kingdom which will not be damaged. And he makes signs in heaven and on earth, as He saved Daniel from the lions." And this Daniel prospered in the kingdom of Darius and in the kingdom of Cyrus, the Persian. P. 145 *m pS] G an an" G b?r\ by H 13^0 12V G °^ Dip G papn by? D nri^ja DTI7 S pan pbo H by by G VWl P G JTT! UT G ■pnsao nsa D rnrm mn A byn by G agriEr mtzj Dt ™ mn D linnn T n Dt IpB pEU G bvyn bbv H 7 s irT*tn mn G ■■aFiEto mtzj At nn'pa Dip A NT© R2T S ■pan T* D nirj mn G 'pb'paFiEr V» St irrna nna G w^a run G vm XT G anin air H raeJnn ratf H "ion 1QN G "ininn -QN H arti" ati? S Answer Key • 263 P. 146 It!? mn G VJ1 nriN H T!j?rr nap Gt ■pilpnp lip H n W: Dip H inn i?in G roto D"»to G u-jirr; irp H k™ mr G iaa naj> G Raanr] mn Gt npnn ppn H ^.ri] mn D TC ■f* G ]ia^ nac? D FiQQiinn an polel-t D^pl is H, rap 1 is G; both are imperfect 3 masculine singular. H^rp and n'pWil'p are both H infinitives of T7#; the ] in rfpiJarp is a result of nasal- ization. ^IlBnp is a Dt active participle (there is no dagesh because il is guttural), whereas n'pnnnn is Gt (infinitive). P. 147 "IDS* is an active participle; 1QK is perfect (3 masculine singular) Dn'nri is Gt, ^Snnri is Dt (both are imperfect 2 masculine singular) HKEJXlp is Dt, "QWriQ is Gt (both are active participles, though ilK&anp is feminine and "QI?riQ masculine). r'ptSpnp is Dt (active participle mp); rf?tppni"H is Gt (infinitive). mum is Ht; mrariN is At. .tna rrrn ]p rra rrrc? N3N (l) p. 148 .Nivirm mobn bv wrrnu bbsti *nao (2) t : t ■ : t : - - t : ■ - : ■■ : - t : t v y w^bi pj'pk'? Nraizfr nqjj tfnn ns^q (3) t : ■■ : t v: v tt~: t - ■ : - t : - v y .^1 K10K Dtp RS'pD ""p «nnj? ]D pS]p'p IT'!J2 (4) .nrj»i nnp H3 «"jicd ^ np'po (5) .iw'pa ds pao ramij (6) .^a 1 ? nntp h? irf^n K'miT (7) .mn npipn 'pp » 9 n Nrf?$ (8) 264 • An Introduction to Aramaic Chapter 27 P. 149 Daniel 7:1 In the first year of Belshazzar, king of Babylon, Daniel saw a dream and visions of his head on his bed. Then he wrote (down) the dream, a complete account; he said: P. 150 HTn HTil G perfect 3 masculine singular 3rp irD G perfect 3 masculine singular "1QK "IftN G perfect 3 masculine singular mn r\m (or naiefcn) KQbrj nbnn ] ,! PP D ,! ?p (2) Daniel answered and said, "I saw in a night vision, and behold 4 winds of the heaven were stirring up the great sea. (3) And 4 great animals, each differ- ent from the other, were coming up from the sea. G active participle masculine singular G active participle masculine singular G perfect 1 common singular G active participle feminine plural G active participle feminine plural A active participle feminine plural the subject of ]rnO is Tjm "1QN = Hebrew "IQitt f"HD ntn means "was seeing" (i.e., saw) P. 152 (4) The first was like a lion, and it had wings like an eagle. I saw until its wings were torn out and it was lifted from the earth and set up on feet like a man, and a human heart was given to it. (5) And behold, another, second animal, resem- bling a bear; and it was raised up on one side, and there were 3 ribs in its mouth between its teeth. And thus they said to it, "Arise, eat much flesh." (6) After this I saw and, behold, another like a panther, and it had 4 bird wings on its back; and the animal had 4 heads, and dominion was given it. p. 151 my rm> run ■■ T mn rrnrj mn 1)^9 pbo w H30 TO ma Answer Key • 265 P. 152 (cont.) ^rprf? rpn 1 ? — itpq 12J3 P. 153 ICD'HQ Q~1Q G passive perfect 3 masculine plural n'TC?] 7CD3 G passive perfect 3 feminine singular riQ^pn Dip H passive perfect 3 feminine singular ITCH HQI G active participle feminine singular ^PiT HIT G passive participle perfect 3 masculine singular subject — iTPn P. 154 (7) After this I saw in night visions, and behold a fourth animal, frightening and frightful and very strong; and it had big iron teeth, eating and smashing and trampling on the remnant with its feet. And it was different from any of the animals that were before it, and it had 10 horns. (8) I looked at its horns and, behold, another, small horn went up among them, and three of the first horns were uprooted from before it; and behold, there were eyes like human eyes on this horn and a mouth speaking great things. p*"Q1 plural feminine Nnvn plural feminine P. 155 rnrj ^ntpO I was looking □S subject ^OO predicate (or verb) p-pl object if^TH ^m G passive participle feminine singular nOS") OB") G active participle feminine singular iT3E?0 riTD D active participle feminine singular 'PSntpO ^32) Dt active participle masculine singular Hjp'pp pbo G perfect 3 feminine singular i"npi?n^ ~~\pti Gt perfect 3 feminine plural 266 • An Introduction to Aramaic subject — N 9 np rfpFl rfoa G 1 [both are feminine singular active participles PIp^TO A J to r r P. 156 PI*? 12^ ,_ T fSa it had wings of an eagle *]•& ,_ T JETIB 1"23 n'p it had 4 wings of a bird pirn Pi 1 ? ^n? ^ fat? it had large iron teeth (9) I saw until thrones were put in place, and one old of days sat, his dress like white snow and the hair of his head like pure wool. His throne was flames of fire, its wheels burning fire. (10) A river of fire was flowing and going out from before Him; a thousand thousands served Him, and a myriad of myriads rose before Him, the judgment sat and books were open. Passive verbs: VQ"1, IITnS P. 157 Active participles: ntn, p 1 ?!, "tO, pS] Verbs JTin mil G perfect 1 common singular 1JT Hrr G perfect 3 masculine singular HlHEJQEr EJQC D imperfect 3 masculine plural + 3 masculine singular pronominal suffix 'HQ'Ipl Dip G imperfect 3 masculine plural Suffixes ]1D"13 feminine plural risn'p 3 masculine singular , ni t P3'73 3 masculine singular ]''2 , 52J masculine plural $T1 masculine singular determined P. 158 (11) I saw, then, because of the sound of the great words which the horn was speaking; I saw until the animal was killed and its body destroyed and given over to the burning fire. (12) And the rest of the animals — they removed their dominion, but length of life was given to them until a time and a season. bp = Hebrew 'Tip Answer Key • 267 P. 158 (cont.) rfrtpj? bup G "nin tin h n'p'pQO ^0 D active participle feminine singular T1VTI Tllti H perfect 3 masculine plural P. 159 N'^O masculine plural determined N©N masculine singular determined rIQ2?3 feminine singular possessive Nrn*"Q~l feminine plural determined KriVn is singular, RriVH is plural (both are feminine determined) (13) I saw in night visions and behold (one) like a son of man (i.e. human being) was coming with the clouds of the sky; and he reached the Ancient of Days, and they brought him near before Him. (14) And dominion was given to him, and glory and kingship and all the peoples, the nations and the languages served Him. His dominion is an eternal dominion which will not pass, and His kingdom one which will not be destroyed. W*?* 1 ? has a masculine singular determined suffix i~nn Pins — "was coming" Pin r D'?Q is ID7Q with a 3 masculine singular possessive suffix p. 160 nm nriN nm rron rnir mv Timpn nip G active participle masculine singular G perfect 3 masculine singular G imperfect 3 masculine singular Dt imperfect 3 feminine singular G imperfect 3 masculine plural H perfect 3 masculine plural + 3 masculine singular 'rnm.pn — the subject is indefinite 268 • An Introduction to Aramaic (15) My spirit — I, Daniel — became distressed in the midst of a sheath (i.e. my body), and the visons of my head disturbed me. (16) I approached one of those standing before me, and I sought certainty from him concerning all this. And he said to me and informed me of the thing's interpretation: (17) "These great animals which are 4 — 4 kings will arise from the earth; (18) and holy ones of the Most High will receive the kingdom, and they will possess the kingdom forever and forever." rQ"lp Dip G perfect 1 common singular niHN HIQ G imperfect 1 common singular ■^iHilT DT H imperfect 3 masculine singular + 1 common singular ]1 t 73p"' blp D imperfect 3 masculine plural N'ftNp Dip G active participle masculine plural determined P. 162 fJN — they (feminine plural) (19) Then I wanted to make certain concerning the fourth animal, which was different from all of them, more frightening with teeth of iron and claws of copper, eating, smashing, and trampling the rest with its feet. (20) And on the ten horns which were on its head and the other one which went up and before which three fell — that horn had eyes and a mouth speaking great things, and its appearance was bigger than its companions. (21) I saw, and that horn made war with the holy ones and prevailed over them. (22) Until the Ancient of Days came and judgment was given to the holy ones of the Most High, for the time had arrived and the holy ones possessed the kingdom. P. 163 jS" 7 ! demonstrative pronoun feminine singular (it can also be masculine) G perfect 1 common singular G active participle feminine singular G passive participle feminine singular A active participle feminine singular G perfect 3 feminine singular G perfect 3 feminine plural G perfect 3 masculine singular p. 164 wrp rbn m demonsl rros — ms rrati — rro n'rrn — bnn npip - PP^ np'pp — pbo t - : - ^33 rrao — rron Answer Key • 269 (23) Thus he said: The fourth animal — there will be a fourth kingdom on the earth which will be different form all the kingdoms, and it will devour the entire earth and trample it and smash it. (24) And the 10 horns — from the king- dom will arise ten kings, and after them will arise another, and he will be dif- ferent from the earlier ones and will lower three kings. (25) And he will speak words against the Most High and will wear out the holy ones of the Most High, and he will intend to change times and law. And they will be given into his hand for a time and times and half a time. (26) And he will sit in judgment and they will remove his dominion to be destroyed and killed until the end. (27) And the kingdom and dominion and greatness of the kingdoms under all heaven is given to the people of the holy ones of the Most High. His kingdom is an eternal kingdom, and all dominions will worship and be obedient to Him. P. 165 ■parrjr i hi i nrr nrnrr nrr ^stfrr bsm ^ D KiO"! D 150': G rnpn'? mtf rnatfn'p ion main 1 ? -n» G imperfect 3 feminine singular Gt imperfect 3 masculine plural G passive perfect 3 feminine singular H imperfect 3 masculine singular all are H infinitives P. 166 jirfpsp G rfrs •pranEr Dt XQV ]nrrr; h to (28) Here is the end of the word. I, Daniel, my ideas disturbed me very much, and my spendor changed over me. And I guarded the thing in my heart. , ]3 i pri3'' bni D imperfect 3 masculine plural + 1 common singular ItlPlEr PDEJ Dt imperfect 3 masculine plural rnCM 1Q] G perfect 1 common singular 270 • An Introduction to Aramaic Chapter 28 Pp. 168-69 .Kpnja ^n-] »T? na^an'pan nai> ^ato n^a iimb na aan na ra« .•as «o"i3 ^ iD^arfpan 'snai ^aan nrio 'pttfin 'pn^ai 'as prap p'pa ruj^pa rattfa n, 1 ??? ^na ^p ngni .•» p nai> '38 rrni in rra p nnatpTn 'n» rra nrn^i .ara ^ini *pa ^5 pnan aa »ai .Tip naa no ^"p ap^a 'na n^nni .pnan ]p'?o an 1 ? Kinfo rra Kns an 1 ? p^a rra an .n^ac , a'?a Tca^ nc ,i 7 .rat anp ma miji .Kira rra ara I am Bar Rakib, son of Panamuwa, king of Sam'al, servant of Tiglath-Pileser, the master of the four quarters of the earth. Because of my father's righteous- ness and my (own) righteousness, my master Rakib-el and my master Tiglath- Pileser seated me on my father's throne. And my father's house toiled more than all others, and I ran in the wheel of my master, the king of Assyria, in the midst of many kings, owners of silver and owners of gold. And I grasped my father's house and made it better than the house of any of the great kings. And my brothers, the kings, envied all the goodness of my house. And there was no good house for my fathers, the kings of Sam'al. Behold, the house of Kilamuwa was theirs, and behold, the winter house was theirs and the summer house. But I built this house. p. 172 .nnsQ 1 ? vfr\ nrara n^a rani? 'Dtp rrnn na 1 ? Hither were brought the bones of Uzziah, king of Judah. Do not open. Pp. 173-174 nnan 1 ? in? p ra'pa rnran p na :Bbni nip Tpnm p'Tin nor aa 1 ? p^an ran "bn p "n ranann rarnais aaa s n mish ranan by tz^a ffi na^ ^n nisK p 1 vm nnrano -am nvi$ naa ptpieto ntnn p rvp^h nnnpn pai p» nai> na par; .rraitf ninn p rarn rapjpn n^npi inn nnaaa 'ao pn .aa 4 ? p"an 'a'pn p rpm 'a'pn p na? "an .n'pc? .at© raannn natf*? nar pa Answer Key • 27 1 May Yose and Iron and Hezekiah, the sons of Halpy, be remembered for good. Whoever gives (i.e. makes) discord between a man and his comrade, speaking (with an) evil tongue concerning his comrade to the peoples (i.e. foreigners) or stealing his comrade's property, or whoever reveals the city's secret to the peo- ples — the Judge whose eyes wander over the whole earth and sees hidden things will direct His anger against that man and against his seed (descen- dants), and He will uproot him from under heaven. And let all the people say, "Amen, amen, selah." May Rabbi Yose, son of Halpy, (and) Hezekiah, son of Halpy, be remembered for good. They made many stairs for the name of the Merciful One. Peace. Chapter 29 Pp. 176-77 (lines 1-3) t ; • ■■: ■ t--:t •• tt : T : - : | T : - : - - t | - : t frO^O tfliTPTj D"]j? ~]yy®\ VT& W ^ m ® ^W. » 9 D0 rfr* $f]D rf?0 "irj Ti2j-j mm ^ ]Fi£ pnis ]>m .*]"?« in ]£0 "t p -itp arra ^rn To our master Bagohi, governor of Judah. Your servants Yedaniah and his col- leagues, the priests who are in Yeb, the fortress: May the God of heaven seek our master's peace abundantly at every time, and may He give you compassion before King Darius and the members of (his) household, a thousand times more than now. And may He give you long life and may (you) be happy and prosperous at all times. Pp. 178-79 (lines 4-13) dbj-]8 "p K3 i ?o Eftrnrn 14 rati nan rrva :]-\m p nrnjDi rpar ^ny pa 331T1 ov rT»alaq Rrrpa a:a n n^rj »n^ n »-ni?a aa'po ^ ^i p?3 .nan p *nur\) an-pa a^a "t «n^ in 1 n tn^ □*? :mn ran "prnB n t-etf? wxra pan mrj ^nrn "t ma ]p] ^ n^ej rn?» »Tfr tjt. arvn "in« rrva'p in$ ]nn« ^n djp »nan "irn ]»e« ins .itf^ Rn-pa 3:3 n K-m$ rran iin "t »n» "t r»tibi>i ritik "u? Tnefta ra a-mta tor aii^n nv y t - -: ■ t : - ■ t- -: t : - - ■ : ' I " t -; - - •■ • 12?ra ^T \)TfQ%3. iirj "T p8 "T rfrpB )>B 5 p8 "T ]jnn mrj r\% .iBPI l"OFl nn , 2? Di? n s'pb n$ "t ppy ^qdi cm "^ K'ttfEn n DfTTsn p~£ arr$Ti t t -: - : ■ | - : t -; - ■ t)~ t : ■ - : t • : t --: t - ■ I t t: t : t : - -. 272 • An Introduction to Aramaic Now your servant Yedaniah and his colleagues say thus: In the month of Tammuz, year 14 of King Darius, when Arsham went out and came to the king, the priests of the god Khnub, the god who is in Yeb the fortress, were in agree- ment with Vidranga, who is the commander here. "Surely, they will remove the temple of YHW, the God which is in Yeb the fortress, from there." After that, the evil Vidranga sent a letter to Naphaina, his son, who is military chief in Syene, the fortress, saying, "They will destroy the temple which is in Yeb, the fortress." After Naphaina led the Egyptians with the other forces, they came to the fortress of Yeb with their weapons. They entered that temple, destroyed it to the ground, and smashed its stone pillars which were there. Also, there were five stone gates, built out of cut stone, which were in that temple — they destroyed; and their standing doors and the copper pivots of those doors, and their wooden roof which was entirely of cedar with the rest of the beams and the other things which were there they burned entirely with fire. And the gold and silver basins and anything which was in that temple — all of it they took and made it for themselves. P. 180 (lines 13-17) p^Q 1 ? ^ Tiaas 'pi .RnT? y.2 ii vnwt 123 r p3$ p¥& ^o 'Qi 1 jpi ^t K-mta nuip eJw nan ^ pan Tfa* niasji .nnstzjn na.3 "jt *nm pspi p^l t |"]lJ pib ]pj?tp ^arn j'tzJa njp nana$ tisj rap 'pi ^nn «"? |"dd] bi) Tiibn |0 wto ipaan tfpto .ra. anTia j'lnn "t k>oej tno in^ nirn T |"Trj] I'rtpf? ^3 ^t tnia*^ 2?"^3 to n pna ^3] naif nap n And from the days of the king of Egypt, our ancestors had built that temple in Yeb, the fortress. And when Cambyses entered Egypt, he found that temple built. And they overthrew all the temples of the Egyptian gods, but no one destroyed anything in that temple. And when this was done, we were wearing sack-cloth and with our wives and children fasting and praying to YHW, the Lord of Heaven, who let us see (vengeance upon) that Vidranga. The dogs removed the chain from his feet, and all the property which he had bought was lost, and all the men who sought evil for that temple were all killed, and we saw them. Answer Key • 273 P. 181-82 (lines 17-22) janirr bv) n*rp bv ^nbeJ rr$* ^ tiw RFiefasei nt "t ]ni>a rat nnnp ^n ■Knirr nm •qi) n 'ranis }npiN ^i n^raa "t K»ana nniDi Kan wrp not rat nin to^n Efirann 14 rutf nan nil P ^ T^ ^^ si ? n ~!0 ^1^ n 1 ? "inni 7TTBJQ vb nsrp .]Tiy n^nnaa j'tt weft .'pa^i ]tp'n i 7 }pp© rara$ nnr «•? rrfpri naia'pi nnaa aa'pn eftnrn 17 rap cat nri pj p *]« .]ti0 Even before this, at the time that this evil was done to us, we sent a letter to our master and to Yehohanan, the high priest, and his colleagues, the priests who are in Jerusalem, and to Ostanes, Anani's brother, and the Judean nobles. They did not send us a single letter. Even from the month of Tammuz in the 14 th year of King Darius and to this day we wear sackcloth and fast. Our wives are made like widows; we do not anoint (with) oil and do not drink wine. Even from that (time) and to the day of King Darius' 17 th year they have not made a grain offering or incense or burnt offering in that temple. P. 182-83 (lines 22-30) at? ^"iq by ]n .ppa ]a y ,L ?^a ^a K , "T ir H ^IP 1 n ^X TT?^ P? TQtni nmc? '^a "trj .fi , .aap'? fi ]pa$ *b na map 1 ? n,? vn\%t by ntztonK n'aap'? ^C 1 ^ irp "T ^nias ^ cin ,L ?iJ n^ner n.aa nnaa .pisaa nan n by ru-p" 1 mbm sraia^ Nnrrai rQip mn naa s t ^ap^ Rrrra a'a - I :)t : t t t -: - t : t t • \ :)- t—, ■■ )t: t t Brpni •faan "ptfyi rramt*; ]ni> ^aa T"?^ n^ai nnsa «n^ in 1 n Nnano rfaj in 1 nnp n, 1 ? mrn. npnin mara "^ K"via$ 't iv niy ]a ]n -nan n ta ant ^] ^k paaa ^ps ^ana pi inani rrbx n 1 ? anpi n naa ]o K'ntz; np'ptzj] nfpn br pt?a ^n*?© nnn : nna : Na r^q n^s ^n .^nin ^0 na? by vt : Kb ozhK a'pa i*? Tar n nan *!« .pot? nns Efrnrcjo -aa .aa'pa tzftnnn 17 rati penes'? 20 _ a Now your servants, Yedaniah and his colleagues and the Judeans, all citizens of Yeb, say thus: "If it is good to our master, take thought to build that temple, since they do not let us build it. See to your well-wishers and your friends who 274 • An Introduction to Aramaic are here in Egypt. Let a letter be sent to them from you concerning this temple of YHW, the God — to build it in Yeb, the fortress, as it was built before. And they will offer grain offerings and incense and burnt offerings on the altar of YHW, the God, in your name; and we will pray for you at all times — we and our wives and our children and the Judeans, everyone who is here. If they do this until that temple is built, there will be merit for you before YHW, the God of Heaven, more than for a person who offers Him a burnt offering and sacri- fices whose price is 1000 silver coins and gold. Concerning this we sent, we informed. We also sent all the words in a letter in our name to Delaiah and Shelemiah, the sons of Sanballat, governor of Samaria. Also, Arsham did not know about this which was done to us at all. On the 20 th of Marheshvan, the 17 th year of King Darius. P. 184 pipy rfpcn ^ pan nn ii nrf?© trrcnr n?~p. i ? rrafca in rprr 1 ? p'rati ^nfp rnrja'p in/pEn par? "i rtaoa rrfpi }?in is jrnirr nfp pm nri ]nrv ]j?rn .p-$l pirj ^ par] •^ni'pn jprjN n^p firi .pin^n ]"nbb .D*pttJ twn rr ,, arjQ t 7 jftrr nb& Pp. 184-85 Simon to Judah, son of Manasseh, of Kiryat Arbaya. I sent you two donkeys with which you will send two men — Jonathan, son of Ba'yan, and Masabala — who will load (them). And they will send palms and citrons to his camp, to you. And you — send others from you, and they will bring the myrtle and willow (branch) to you. And prepare them and send them to his camp. Peace! Chapter 30 P. 186(19:14-17) in r$ Km 'a'pD? rwrn .pisp intf? ^o if^a a^n a-pa ™ na'prn papa'pi rhhi'p l*?^?'?' 1 ri*? Q ^ 'P?' 1 in $ ^ ^ w$ *$? &10 ^lani Np? "HI? Rp^ 1 ? ^P 1 ^ ^ n "W! ^pan hn^:?^ .nrpTirfpa wrnon .pn« j^i span ^p3 «n» p'otfi .sirj *eng p Pp. 186-87 And I, Abram, dreamed a dream on the night of my entering into the land of Egypt. And in my dream I saw, and behold a cedar and a very lovely palm. Answer Key • 275 And people (lit. sons of men) came and sought to cut down and uproot the cedar and to leave the palm alone. But the palm tree protested and said, "Do not cut down the cedar, the two of us are from one family." So the cedar was left in the shadow (i.e. with the help) of the palm tree and not cut down. P. 188 (20:2-8) yrf? yjsf, nos ntfnri "irto nb pyi : Nasi . . . WTB2K Db^ rib "v&ft D^ rras snsi mn rib »»- nqs. . . NrraaN n bisi areas rib wn an not nitt^ nb t : --: - •• t t : t : - : - I " : t :- - ■ - t t - ■• rnrra bis -ram ib^s nqs kitti rr&H nq Krrm-r Nmsb bis rib tscd "-:- • -: - | t • : t : t - • | T * - t t - t : t : v : nqs smba - ) .mtt n^aaa bis trap! pna ndi rrss r^ nqs kitt t: t - ; - t -: t : \ j ■ } : \ t ■ - t - - I t : t t: t - : pBtzr Kb •paab ]bir ,_ t j^bsi I'pirm bsi .wptf rib jnb xzhv nqdt p/std bis Din pbis p Nbyb wrnsjtf nP^] rnsral 1212? •pttfa bis bin .amp .»»" KirTbrn Nrrau wafo rrasn it kiss tt t -::■: t t • ■ - t:t | ■■ t : ■-. Pp. 188-89 How splendid and beautiful the form of her face, and how soft the hair of her head. How lovely are her eyes, and how pleasant is her nose and all the radi- ance of her face. How lovely are her breasts, and how beautiful all her white- ness. Her arms, how beautiful, and her hands, how perfect; how attactive all the appearance of her hands. How lovely her hands (palms), and how long and delicate all the fingers of her hands. Her feet, how beautiful, and how perfect her legs. And no virgins nor brides who go into the bridal chamber are more beautiful than she. And her beauty is more beautiful than all women; her beau- ty is above all of theirs. And with all this beauty she has great wisdom. And everything she has is lovely. P. 189(20:8-11) ">■$ 'pbbon linnbn in ds p pinsn jpn Pm fcn'apnn "ba tobo ^P© psi *Fp»b nb Rrnoai arnaE? bis bv noriw amm arrn' 5 ! inirb nbEft rani .Nnbp bv nana nn.n ps tfin pan ^sbob pto maRi 'abtDjrab aysi ttibi na$ p]pn s ss Dnsis na« npni .nb^p «bi snbps org* na$ njPpEft .oaiNS nto ra nnpn ps Np'bs 'ai? tir is Pp. 189-90 And when the king heard the words of Hirkenos and the words of his two com- rades, since the three of them spoke in harmony (lit. with one mouth), he loved her and sent in haste. He led her away and saw her and was surprised at all her 276 • An Introduction to Aramaic beauty. So he took her for his wife and sought to kill me, but Sarai said to the king, "He is my brother," that I benefit on her account. So I, Abraham, was left (alone) on her account and not killed. And I, Abram, cried powerfully — I and Lot, my brother's son with me — on the night when Sarai was led away from me by force. Chapter 31 P. 191 Tig nirj .rnrin naia arnaa yffin nog"? pS3 )qt in .mrj EPttyi "O"^ nnn nag .'pp'an 13 :rrt> nag tfik }'10 naa na wb> nag .pan ^a 03 13 .f? n^im erana mm .»at in 1 ? "morn "fppn na n»*=r una? wnn'? -n :rrt> Pp. 191-92 Terah was a statue maker. One time he went out someplace, placing Abraham as a seller in his place. A person came wanting to buy. [Abraham] said to him, "How old are you?" [The buyer] said to him, "Fifty years old." [Abraham] said to him, "Woe to that man, for you are fifty years old and you bow down to a one day old!" And [the buyer] was embarrassed and walked on. P. 192 .]irroTj? a-ijP -f? an :ptf? rnani .rbbi nrs in rtj>b Rnrra nn« pt in Nngn |?5 .jinan nann : 'ima no'ppa sinn ami finnani no^ia n-oa, djp antra ann nng ?n i i ? msaa no in" 1 ? nag ?pa lin 1 ? nar na wb nag mag ^ai ; p 'tdk tug nag p. .fimanjp ai.jp rb rna#\ nbbi : nrs nn rtjjb :n ,i ? nag .finnani nabpia yo; nan fin ap .w|? 'rag tug nag p.] .fsa T^g ^^ ^1 :rpi ? ">S$ -V 3 ^ T V X "a n'paa n« na Pp. 192-93 One time a woman came carrying a plate of flour. She said to him, "Behold, sacrifice before them [the statues]." He rose, took a club and broke them and gave (i.e. put) that club in the hands of the largest of them. When his father came, [the father] said to him, "Why did you do this to them?" [Abraham] said to him, "How can I deny to you? A woman came carrying a plate of flour, and she said to me, 'Sacrifice [it] before them.' This [statue] said, T will eat first,' and that one [statue] said, T will eat first.' This big one rose, took the club, and broke them [the other statues]." [His father] said to him, "Why are you trick- Answer Key • 277 ing me? Do these [statues] know?" [Abraham] said to him, "Would your ears not listen to your mouth?" P. 194 P. 195 w>Qb -njo:: :n ,L ? 10$ mtfp nso] :i ,L ? 10$ .iiio3'? rrniopi rrno3 .K 9 "3.^01 "33^ 11303 :1 ,L ? 10$ ■N'O'? 11303] ^^ 10$ .^113'? |"0001 :n ,i 7. 10$ .K33 T i> ,l ?0l01 snil'? 11303 :1 ,L ? 10$ .RBI? 1 ? 11303] :n ,i 7. 10$ na i^o :n ,i 7. io$ .anil 'rnoi ne?3 in 1 ? ii303 :i ,L ? 10$ .Kirn 1 ? 11303] mcjFiKta iinc? ^rf?$ Kirn lo "ip^eto Til ■iin'? R$>g H303 n^ ."wiKta .1300 ^T.] t> He lifted him and delivered him to Nimrod. [Nimrod] said to [Abraham], "Let us bow down to the fire." [Abraham] said to him, "Let us bow down to the water that extinguishes the fire." [Nimrod] said to him, "So let us bow down to the water." [Abraham] said to him, "Let us bow down to the clouds that carry the water." [Nimrod] said to him, "So we will bow down to the cloud." [Abraham] said to him, "Let us bow down to the wind that brings the cloud." [Nimrod] said to him, "So we will bow down to the wind." [Abraham] said to him, "Let us bow down to the person who endures [i.e. withstands] the wind." [Nimrod] said to him, "You are talking words [i.e. nonsense]. We will only bow down to the flame. Behold, I am throwing you into it. So let your God, to whom you prostrate yourself, come and save you from it." □"OKI |0 ION N3$ DION! 1H3 □» ? r jSB3 10 H0$ .T^B D^j? jll J01 111 ^13] mn |2joo'? crg» Trig ji? .N3$ 111030 N3$ ion iii03 rraa □» N3$ 11013.] 2J^o mo^EJi] 111^03 .010^1 |o :rr i ? 10$ ?na pi |0 i" 1 ? pp$ .10$ mn ^a by )ii noi rrrpi Kin «in .10$ "32 by noi ve?) raa Haran was standing there, divided [i.e. uncertain]. He said, "What is your will? If Abram wins, I will say I am with Abram; if Nimrod wins, I will say I am with Nimrod." When Abram went down into the furnace of fire and was saved, they said to him [Haran], "Whose side are you on (lit. whose are you)?" He said to them, "Abram's." They lifted him and threw him into the fire, and his belly was parched, and he came out and died in front of his father. This is what is written: "And Haran died ^B by [i.e. on account of] Terah, his father." 278 • An Introduction to Aramaic Chapter 32 P. 198 na« mn ^wqet .bKratfn pmr tsqn ]Q •p'ran i^nan^B "in? mm (l) niTq'p -Qrj ■»'? noa mn pniri .k ,9 t i?13 Fin? vevn *ew rr; niTp 1 ? 'tin ^ :iqki ^Kantf 1 ^r .p^i kh^n "ian 13 na»i nTinrK rnfo 13 nasi N3N rr; N33i?p'? nnis mn ] , ki patf 'yobrb nnian^ K3Ki irn in? tot 83k tunm 13 mn itk pot man 13 rnran» row .NiranN'? -cos] iod win vb t : : - |t t~: | ■ t:t: ::■■::■ : : - : tt : : ■ : • : - - t t -• t t )Tft>n 13 R3M1 :"IQ»1 pTOP ?TC .K1$3n*6 "iJEjEU "100 111 ^ Wa'pn T ]Q .33^0 'nil N 1 ? "ITIS •' t ?i3i t 7 S11 T13 KETIlp »#? 1TK1 |'3BJ 3E)'l □ni3N rr "03 w n »iq-q t pi nq^jj no Dip ptki waa^a i^onizTa t t : - t ■■ - t : | • t : t ■• T tJt: | •• * t t - t : • : .□113N :nn 10N1 t t : - ■■ - t : Pp. 198-99 (1) It happened after these words, after Isaac and Ishmael quarreled, Ishmael said, "It is fitting for me to inherit father, since I am his senior son," and Isaac said, "It is fitting for me to inherit father, since I am the son of Sarah his wife and you are the son of Hagar, my mother's handmaid." Ishmael answered and said, "I am more worthy than you, since I was cut (i.e. circumcised) at thirteen years; and if it had been my wish to refuse, I could have not delivered myself to be circumcised. But you were circumcised at eight days; if you had knowl- edge, perhaps you would not have delivered yourself to be circumcised." Isaac answered and said, "Behold, today I am thirty-seven years old, and if the Holy One, blessed be He, sought all my limbs, I would not refuse." Immediately after these words were heard before the Master of the Universe, "the Word of the Lord tested Abraham and said to him, 'Abraham.'" P. 200 □"11 n$i itt iT iia rr ]iia 131 now (2) .wkfi :m^ ioki wniio )p in by vrbsh. ]an npnisi wn'pia sr$? ~$ br$\ pmr n; nna pn n; 13m nnpn w prj nish3 QCH n ^ D, Tj?&1 ( 3 ) ■"$ "V^, vb^i) Nna^ni »rrn p^ rapi mi? pn^ 1 ni prEpr bxynw ni it.ip'ps w e]pn rmrr'pri nop? (4) p" n ,L ? ia$i Kins'? by$ Dpi wbsh ]nni pni |0 TjnianttfKi vnm bu Tap Kip^ pp sam 13^ rr; nnra* 'aarq RErtw wai man nv ton p'p pnp'N na^ii/? Drn?K low (5) 3iri3i Na^y no 1 ? 11303] ^3 ill] p? nnfenrtfn na Dprp p ••aina 1 ? vo nv ppt? 3 , D3] pin? prnr it:? ittfi Nrfrin nn rr Dni3« 3 , p3 T i (6) .pnif? Answer Key • 279 ,; on annat^ pmr nasi (7) .Nnna Dimrin *br$\ ktsd rvi antf a m iwbsb tna'a i»m ropi NrrcrN »n nasi .»]»n now .»2K nasi t t -: - t : • | t : I ■ |-- : t t t - t : tt - t : t - - t : .nna abti ana nirmn frmi :na arto'? »na-» tib inn" , " :amn» naai (8) _. . . ... ■■;- — ; - ■ : tt - : - t : ■ ■• - : ■ tt: - - t : v y Pp. 200-201 And he said to him, "Behold!" (2) And he said, "Now, take your son, your only one that you love, Isaac, and go to the land of worship and offer him up there as a burnt offering on one of the mountains which I will tell you." (3) And Abraham acted early in the morning, and he saddled his donkey and took his two young servants, Eliezer and Ishmael, with him and Isaac, his son. And he cut olive and fig and palm twigs which were fit for the offering, and arose and went to the place that the Lord said to him. (4) On the third day, Abraham lift- ed his eyes and saw the cloud of glory rising over the mountain, and he recog- nized it from afar. (5) And Abraham said to his youths, "You wait here with the donkey, and I and the youth will proceed hither to examine if what has been announced — "thus will be your son" — will be fulfilled; and we will bow down to the Master of the Universe and return to you. (6) And Abraham took twigs for the burnt offering and placed it on Isaac, his son, and he took the fire and the knife in his hand, and the two of them went together. (7) And Isaac said to Abraham, his father, "Father"; and he said, "Behold." And he said, "Here is the fire and twigs, but where is the lamb for the burnt offering?" (8) And Abraham said, "The Lord will choose the lamb for the burn offering for Himself, my son;" and the two of them went with a perfect heart (i.e. in complete harmony). P. 202 m» turn snana m annas lan turn , " nb nasn vnmb insi (9) tt t : ■ t : : - t t t : - | t - t : ■■ - -. - T . _ . _. _ \ / m 'by nnai RFiafrsn snna naamsi rrrai m am tuinicn naa naamsi t - : ■■ - : t : : t t : - : ■ : "t : ~ t : t t : : - : ■ : asai (10) .yo'p |0 b^vb ^nana by mm nttf] nna prnr m nsai k , t d , jp tp nsa n'atfp pnir nasi mj? .nna m oytf? arrao nroiFi n"T : m annas .Tjanpa s'pias raneh s'pann sala'p nnri "©sn vrwx ]a d?"jeu vbti nw .saina , as'?a'? t??WQ pnirn "i]"^i pnir n nrin I'panaa nnnasn "try •pan ]ims :saina rptfpa p.y .ainm "an vb annas] ainm "an mn pnir a^nam aai>a vb ann .a^na in an] in NQ^m man rsnTp inn ...... ■■ - : T ■■ t : ■ : : ■ - •• t - t : t : • : | ■ T ■ : | ■• : .annas annas :tib nasi s 9 aEj p w n sas'pa nn snpi (in .nmts eptfa tt:~ tt:~ •■ - t : t - : | ■ t t : - ■■ t|: x / ■■ : - •• t .tzra dutq ^b tooti sn s'na'? it train •?» nasi (12) S3sn nasi --■ ■■ .-- T . T ._. | T . . _ _ T .\ / TT -t: .TO nrrr m nna m Briani; a 1 ?! ms "n s'pnn ans 'anp ^a ]iia ans 280 • An Introduction to Aramaic ^aton mtipti Ta "Harmn in ana^n wt] *«m »irr rr ornriK ^pn (13) , np , D»i ntr n"D3i nnnaa niw .n3npa n^-ni wwnna Tn« »d^ ■J ,_ : •• T •• t : tt: - t - : - :\- tt 1 : t ■ - : - • -; t:t .nna ^bin Rrfa£> Pp. 202-4 (9) And they came to the place that the Lord had said to him, and there Abraham (re)built the altar which Adam had built and had been destroyed in the waters of the flood, and Noah had returned and built it, but it was destroyed in the generation of the division. And he arranged the twigs on it and bound Isaac, his son, and placed him on the altar above the twigs. (10) And Abraham extended his hand and took the knife to slaughter his son. Isaac answered and said to his father, "Bind me well so that I will not struggle from my soul's pain and be thrust into the pit of destruction and a blemish be found in your sacri- fice." Abraham's eyes were looking at Isaac's eyes, and Isaac's eyes were look- ing at the angels on high. Isaac saw them, but Abraham did not see them. The angels on high answered, "Come, see two unique ones in the world — one slaughters and one is slaughtered. The one that slaughters does not refuse, and the one that is being slaughtered extends his neck." (11) And the angel of the Lord called to him from heaven and said to him, "Abraham, Abraham." And he said, "Behold." (12) And he said, "Do not extend your hand to the youth, and do not do anything bad to him. Behold, now it is revealed before Me that, behold, you are a fearer of the Lord and have not refused your son, your only one, from Me." (13) And Abraham lifted his eyes, and he saw a ram, that had been created at twilight of the completion of the world, caught in the thicket of a tree by its horns. And Abraham went and took it and offered it as a burnt offering instead of his son. Pp. 204-5 ^a " , n,anp p fanna iraa :na$i mnri annaa ]an annas* "^i •hin] (14) jirr; na pa -SpO 3 "WT®. 1 W^ i ? ^'^ Ni?j?w ,33i ? 3 ^ ^71 1?*!i? .□inn; pnai Dinrr 'm □in'? nan:o "inn 'p"^ nuti 1 ? ybu na pnip nn pmr rr □rnas nsa :pn aniiaa pais pa*? i^pn tpn bs pn pTiin □rnatji'p "H sd^q topi (15) . ,r H Rnratf nVi? rr'parj* ]arn nna waarpa rr pap e^in " , na$ rncrj? no'oa :na$i (16) tratf ]p mnn nn rr »aoK Kaoisn ir?"! 3 ^ ^"l 3 nn ^ ( 17 ) 1T n - n 1 "H 3 *T ^- Q si ?] HC 1 (18) .p™ "nip rr np |inn;n : .rep ep np «"?na Tji r»dej 'aaiaa Answer Key • 281 ram (19) :~)wn wrfprnj?' 5 ! ^m'n luna "00^ *?3 1?3 nipt ps p"]3rn .patf rt>n jan mm vqr\ cm Ktp-na '±> mibniKi pn^ 1 rr Kara ■p^'pa rnrn .raeft ami'? aire ^hji lap] •na^ nf? an*!?^ ^ ^ar sram □mn» nsm -ra id rtyvtn vcotb -ra mm (20) .insn tora cmn» rn^ai rnto napi .pmr rv 055 DrnriHH rn&? ni 1 ? "»ani Naao ^mi pmr r? .ap^ ]Q nrrai npantfRi Pp. 204-6 (14) And Abraham thanked and prayed there in that place and said, "In a peti- tion of compassion before You, O Lord, it is revealed before You that there was no trickery in my heart, and I sought to do Your decree with joy. Now when the descendants of Isaac, my son, enter into an hour of anguish, let it be remem- bered for them and answer them and save them. And all generations that are to be will be prepared to say, "Abraham bound Isaac, his son, on this mountain, P. 205 and the Lord's presence was revealed to him there." (15) And the angel of the Lord called to Abraham a second time from heaven (16) and said, "By My word have I sworn, said the Lord, inasmuch as you did this thing and did not withhold your son, your only one, (17) behold, I will bless you very much and greatly multiply your son like the stars of heaven and like the sand that is on the shore of the sea. And your son will inherit the cities of those who hate them, (18) and all the people of the earth will be blessed on account of your son's merit, inasmuch as you accepted My word." (19) And the angels on high led Isaac and brought him to the school-house of Shem, the great, and he was there for three years. And on that day Abraham returned to his servants, and they rose and went together to Beersheba; and Abraham dwelt in Beersheba. (20) And after these things, after Abraham had bound Isaac, the Satan went and told Sarah that Abraham had slaughtered Isaac; and Sarah arose and cried out and choked and died of anguish.