COMPENDIOUS SYRIAC GRAMMAR.

COMPENDIOUS

SYRIAC GRAMMAR

BY

THEODOR NOLDEKE

I'JHH'MBEOll Ob' OlUIiHTAIJ

Ol" BTUABBHUKO.

WITH A TABM OP CHA.EAOTERS

JULIUS EUTING.

TRANSLATED

(WITH THE SANCTION OP THE AUTHOR)
FROM THE SECOND AND IMPROVED GERMAN EDITION

BY

JAMES A. CRIOHTON, D,D.

LONDON:

WILLIAMS & NOEGATE, U HENRIETTA STREET, OOVENT GARDEN.

1904.

PRTSTBJD BY W. DEUGUUN, LKIM1G (GERMANY).

TRANSLATOR'S PREFATORY NOTE.

It appears desirable that the leading modern grammars of the four
best-known Semitic languages, in their classical forms, should ho readily
accessible to English-speaking students. And in this connection, probably
few competent judges will dispute the claims of the following treatises to
bo regarded as authoritative and leading, viz : — Wright's Arabic Grammar
(as revised by Robertson Smith and De Goeje) ; Kautzsch's Gesenius'
Hebrew Grammar; Noldeke's Syriac Grammar; and Dillmann's Bthiopic
Grammar. Of these the first two already exist in English, "Wright's work
having been in that form from the ontset, at least under his own name,
and Kautzsch's Gesenius' having been presented in a similar form a few
years ago, in Collins and Oowley's excellent translation. The grammars
of NSldeke and Dillmann, however, have not hitherto appeared in Eng-
lish, although their pre-eminent position in their respective departments
of Semitic philology is perhaps even leBB open to .challenge, than that of
the other two. It is to supply this want in the educational apparatus
available for English students, so far at least as Noldeke's Grammar is
concerned, that the present translation has been attempted.

Of course it may be said, that students of Syriac will in all likhhood
be sufficiently well acquainted with German, to be able to consult the
original for themselves. I trust that such is the case; but those students
and scholars amongst us, who are most familiar with German, will prob-
ably be the first to wolcome a translation of such a work, if only it has
been executed with reasonable fidelity and care. There are obvious ad-
vantages in an English version for an English eye, however accomplished

yi TBAHSLATOe's PltEJi'ATORY NOTE.

a linguist its owner may I.e. At nil events it is in that belief, imhI witli
no other desire titan to do something fin: this branch of study, that 1
have ventured upon the present edition.

No attempt has been made to alter in any way either thn sulmtMici'
or the arrangement of the (iranmiar. flitatiuns, it is him, lliwn boon
again verified, and slight errors here and there have boon tacitly eunvrted,

To facilitate reference, not only has the very full Table of ( 'onlonts 1 u

set in its usual place, but its items have also been applied Ihroiiglioul
the book, in the form of rubrics to the several sections. With a similar
design an Index of Passages, wanting in the original, has been drawn up
and placed at the end of the volume.

Among other friends who have been helpful towards the preparation
of this version, Ihave specially to thank Professor Robertson of ( ilasgow
University, for much kindly encouragement and wise counsel. Above
all I must express my deep indebtedness to the distinguished author
himself, Professor Noldekc, for the unfailing courtesy and unwearied
patience with which he lent his invaluable guidance and assistance, as
the proof-sheets passed through his hands. Thanks arc. also due to
Hcrr W. Drugulin and his staff, for again encountering, with a. very con-
siderable measure of success, the typographical difficulties, which a work
of this nature must present.

James A. Cbichton,

PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION/)

This hook docs not claim to be in any respect a complete Syriac
Grammar. It is true that with the material at my disposal I might
have added very considerably to not a few sections; but any treatment
of grammatical phenomena which aimed at completeness in every detail
required quite other manuscript studies, than were at all open to me.
Practical considerations too imposed a severe limitation. I trust however,
that even within restricted limits, I have succeeded in producing some-
thing which may be of use.

I have taken my material from the best sources within reach,
entirely disregarding Amira and the other Maronites. Besides the
Jacobite and Nestorian grammarians and lexicographers now in print,
I havo made use of Sevorus of St. Matthaens (usually, hut incorrectly,
styled "of Merit") as he appears in the Gottingon manuscript. The
Directorate of the Giittingen Library, with their accustomed liberality,
farther sont mo, at my request, from their manuscript treasures, tho
largo grammar of Barhcbraous together with his Scholia; and, with no
less readiness, tho Library-Directorate of Gotha sent mo the Vocabulary
of Elias of Nisibis. Theso manuscripts yielded produce of many kinds.
It would havo been an invaluable assistance to me, if I had had boforo
mo the Masoretio tradition of the Syrians, with somo dogreo of complete-
ness. Of this, however, I had at command at first— in addition to tho
opitomos which are found in printed works — only a few extracts, which

(!) Somewhat shortened at the close.— The first edition (1880) was dedicated
to J. P. N. Land (Died 80. Ap. 1897).

VIII PBEFACE TO TUB JfflJSI KDI'J'IOJf.

I had myself noted down in earlier years, from the well-known NwrtmiiMi
Masora of the year 899 (Wright's Catalogue 101 «/</.) ami fmni Hip
Loudon "Qanjafic" manuscripts (Rosen- Ifnrshii II fi2w/f/.| Wright lOKsyr/.).
The deficiency was made up, at least to some extent, by Hie uuiiiiliiiity
of Wright, Zotenborg and (fuidi, who — in answer In a liiwl of i|m*ntiimii
about the mode of writing this or that word ill the Masorclie inmitiscripls
in London, Paris and Rome — furnished inn with iiil'oniuiliuii which in
many cases had been gained only after prolonged search. A careful coll a I ion
of the entire Masorotio material, allowing for the elianee niislukes of
individual scribes, especially if it were accompanied by nn nttoiitno
observation of good, vocalised manuscripts of the Bible, wimlcl b'l us
know pretty accurately and fully how the .lacohiles on Ihe one hand,
and the Nostorians on the other, were wont to pronounce Nyrino in the
Church use. Any point in which those two traditions are found lo be in
agreement must have heen in use prior to the separation of the tun
Churches, that is, at the latest, in the 5° century. Although in the
recitative of the Church Service thore was doubtless a good deal of
artificiality, yet we have in it a reflex at loast of the living speech. Tim
Grammar of Jacob of Edessa (circa 700) is unfortunately lost, nil but
a few fragments. "What tho later systematise™ give, has, generally
speaking, no more authority than can lie traced to Hie Church tradition.
Even the observant Barhebraous, toweling as lie truly does by a lltmil
and shoulders over the rost of his countrymen, lias not always siirvpyod
this tradition completely, while sometimes he explains it, inconectly.
Now and then too, following more analogy, ho presents forms which
can with difficulty be authenticated in the genuine speech. Accordingly
if here and there I do not notice Barhobruous' data, I trust it will not
be attributed to a want of acquaintance with them on my part. Ntill
less could editions like Bernstein's "Johannes", or Josoph David's
"Psalter" (Mosul 1877)— which unfortunately gives an "improved" text
of tho Peshita— constitute an absolute authority For mo, although 1 am

greatly indebted to them. I need hardly mention that in the Utar e»f

vocalisation I have made large use of the well-known complete editions
of the Old Tostamont and the Mow Testament, and of both tho NoHturiu.ii

PKEEACE TO THE JTB8T EDITION. IX

imil the Jacobite-Maronite tradition. In this process, however, I have
endeavoured to observe a due spirit of caution. Even the examination
of the metrical conditions found in the old "poets" (sit venia verlio!)
has not been without results for determining grammatical forms.

Still, even when all authoritative sources have been disclosed, a
good deal will continue to be obscure in the Phonology and Morphology
of Syriac, as it is only for the Bible and a few ecclesiastical writings
that an accurate tradition of the pronunciation exists. So much the less
will the expert be disposed to find fault with mo, for having left here
and there, upon occasion, a mark of interrogation.

As regards the Orthography of the consonantal writing, we are
very favourably situated at the present time, when a long series of texts
reproduces for us with accuracy the style of writing followed in manu-
scripts, from the B" 1 century onwards.

The Syntax I have based wholly upon original authors belonging
to the age in which Syriac was an absolutely living speech. I have relied
specially upon prose works, and among the poets I have given preference
to those who write a simple style. Only a very few of my supporting-
passages come down as far as the 7" century: the others range from
the 2 M to the 6 a . To bring in Barhebraeus orKbedjesu for the illustra-
tion of the Syntax, is much the same as if one sought to employ Lauren-
tins Valla, or Muretus, as an authority for original Latin, All the examples
I have myself collected, with the exception of about a dozen. Naturally
I have made much less use of strongly Graecising writings, than of those
which adhere to a genuine Aramaic stylo. Prom the ancient versions of
the Bible I have, without farther remark, adduced such passages only
as are free from Hebraisms and Graecisins. Looking to the great
influence of the Peshita on the style of all subsequent writings, I might
perhaps have gone somewhat farther in quoting from it. All tho citations
from the 0. T. I have verified in Oeriani's edition, so far as it has
proceoded. Other translations from the Greek I have used only very
exceptionally,— in fact almost never except to illustrate certain Grae-
cisins which were in favour. No doubt oven the best original writings in
Syriac give evidence of the strong influonce of Greek Syntax; but, on

X PIIEFACE TO THE FIEST EDITION.

the other hand, everything is not immediately to he regarded us a Grae-
cism, which looks like one. The Greek idiom exercised its influence with
all the greater force and effect, precisely at those points where Syriac
itself exhibited analogous phenomena.

Although, in the composition of this hook, I have continually kept
an eye upon kindred dialects and languages, I have nevertheless refrained
almost wholly from remarks which touch upon Comparative Grammar.
Not a few observations of that character, however, will he found in my
"Grammar of the .Now-Syriao Language" (Leipzig 1868) and my
"Mandacan Grammar" (Halle 1876). Here and there, besides, I have
tacitly rectified a few things which I had said in those works. The great
resemblance of Syriac to Hebrew — and that especially in Syntax —
will, I hope, be brought into clearer light than heretofore, by the mere
description of the language given in this hook. A similar remark may
he made with regard to special points of contact in the case of Syriac
and Arabic.

I have been obliged to avoid almost entirely any reference to my
authorities in the Phonology and the Morphology. I have also refrained
from quoting the works of modern scholars. A brief manual cannot
well separate between widely-known facts and special stores either of
others or of one's own. But yet I do not mean to miss this opportunity
of referring to the fact, that I am peculiarly indebted to Prof. G. Hoff-
mann's essay, contained in 55DMG XXXIT, 738 sqq., even as I am
farther under deep obligation to this dear friend of mine, for many an
epistolary communication and encouragement, with reference to the
presont work. Prof. Hoffmann also enabled me to make some use, at
least for the Syntax, of his edition of the Juliaims-Bomanee (Leyden
1880) before it was given to the public. Unfortunately it was then too
late to permit my utilising that story still more thoroughly. I have
farther expressly to declare my adherence tit the conception of the roots
'1S) and '5)i>, which Prof. August MtUler bus sot forth in ZDMG
XXIII, 698 ,sq/j. } and which Prof. Stade coineidontly follows in his Hob.
Gramm., although I am not blind to the difficulties which cling oven to
that theory.

PEEBAOB TO THB EIEST EMTIOK. XI

As I wished to avoid extreme prolixity, I was obliged to sock for
some adjustment between tile two systems of vowel-marking. Whoever
weighs the practical difficulties, and particularly the typographical
difficulties, will, I trust, find the plan which I have adopted here, to he
fairly suitable, although I cannot myself regard it as entirely satisfactory.
In the latter part of the Syntax I have made an attempt to employ the
One-point System, occasionally introducing the Two-point System, and
applying proper Vowel-signs only where they seemed to be required in
order to ensure clearness. That attempt was bound to show a certain
amount of arbitrariness and vacillation. The reader may always reflect,
that in many cases different ways of marking have prevailed according
to place and time, and that very seldom indeed does an old manuscript,
which employs the points with any degree of fulness, continue to lie
perfectly consistent in this matter. As regards the carrying -out of
this marking, I must apologise for the circumstance that the points are
not of the same size throughout: distance from the place of printing
made it difficult to correct this slight inequality.

The division into paragraphs aims in nowise at logical consistency:
still less is this to be looked for in the process of subdivision which lias
been applied to not a few of the paragraphs. In every case my sole
concern was to break up the subject-matter into comparatively small
sections, so as to facilitate the survey and the reference from one
passage to another.

I take for granted in those who mean to use this Grammar some
acquaintance at least with Hebrew. Whoever desires to learn Syriac
from it, without the help of a teacher, will do well to impress upon his
memory at first merely the fundamental characteristics of the Ortho-
graphy, the Pronouns, something of the Flexion of the Nouns, the
Paradigm of the Strong Verb, and the most important deviations of tho
Weak Verbs, — as also -to acquire some acquaintance with tho attach-
ment of the Pronominal Suffixes. Then let him read easy, vocalised
texts, next, extracts from the Bible, as they arc to be found, for example,
in Ilodiger's "Ohrestomathia"— a compilation to ho highly commended
even on other grounds. The learner may at first pass many difficulties

XII KIEF ACE TO THE JTKST EDITION.

by, but in time he should "with increasing care try to find out in the
Grammar the explanation of anything which may arrest his attention.
If, at a later stage, he goes systematically over the whole of the Grammar,
including the Syntax, there will no longer ho so much that is strange in
appearance to him. And even to a teacher — dealing with beginners
in Syriac, or any other Semitic language, who already understand some-
thing of Hebrew — an analogous procedure may be recommended.
Familiarity with the Nestorian punctuation will be gained most readily
from Urmia- [and New York-] editions of the Bible, although these do
not givo the system in completeness' — doubtless for typographical
reasons — and, besides, are not free from mistakes.

The Table of Characters, from Euting's master-hand, will suffice
to exhibit the development of the Aramaic Character, at least in several
of its leading types, from its earliest form up to the oldest Estrangelo,
and the farther development of this last, up to the more modern script.

In conclusion I beg once more to tender an emphatic expression of
my warmest thanks to the Library-Authorities, as well as to the personal
friends, who have been helpful to me in the composition of this hook.

Strassburg i. S. 30"' Soptr., 1880.

Th. N&ldeke.

PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION/ 1 )

Although I did not reckon upon the necessity arising during niy
lifotime for a new edition of the Syriac Grammar, I still have continued
to note down in my own copy — following my general practice — many
additions and improvements. A good deal of this material, accordingly,
I was ahle to devote to the new edition. Amongst other things, I have
compared the citations already given from the Life of Simeon Stylites,
with a transcript of the London Codex lent me hy Prof. Kleyn of Utrecht,
now deceased. It would appear however, that the Vatican text is upon
the whole nearer the original, than the one in the British Museum.

I have endeavoured to introduce a considerable number of improve-
ments in points of detail, but I have abstained from radical alterations
except in a very few cases. In the Syntax I have added to the number
of the examples. The Syriac Bible has been more largely drawn upon
than in the former edition, particularly as regards the Gospels, and
especially the Synoptic Gospels. These last exhibit almost invariably an
exceedingly flowing, idiomatic stylo of Syriac, which upon the whole
roads hotter than the Semitic Greek of the original. This feature comes
into still stronger relief in the more ancient form of the text — as con-
tained in C. (Curetonianus) and S. (Sinaiticus) — than in our usual text
P. (Peshita). The Syriac Old Testament frequently approximates the
original Hebrow text too closely; and, precisely because of the intimate
relationship of the languages, we sometimes find ourselves at a loss as to
whether the verbal reproduction is still in conformity with the true

(*) [This edition in the original is dedicated to Prof. Guidi].

XIV PEEFAOE TO THE SECOND EDITION.

Syriac idiom, or is really a Hebraism. It should farther be noticed, that
the genuine Syriac Canon is of much less compass than that of the
Western Churches, and lacks, for instance, the Book of Esther and the
Chronicles. The punctuation, therefore, of these last hooks in the Urmia
edition, is of more slender authority than that of the others, which
reproduces an ancient and established tradition, although it is not free
from mistakes.

Many Syriac words, of which the form is not in keeping with the
rules of Aramaic, have been proved now to he loan-words from the
Assyrian. I have frequently drawn attention to such strangers. In this
matter I follow Jensen's data in Brockehn ami's Syriac Lexicon, and
partly, direct communications from Jensen himself, as well as Delitzsch's
Assyrian Dictionary. In the case of some words however, which are
now indeed looked upon as being borrowed from the Assyrian, it is
perhaps a matter of doubt whether the supposed borrower may not be
the lender, or whether the words concerned may not be part of a
common stock.

I have increased the number of references from one paragraph to
another, but the order of these paragraphs remains the same. As the
figures indicating that order have not been altered, quotations made in
accordance with the }>nragraplis of the old edition are suitable also for
the new. The few additional paragraphs which have been introduced,
bear severally the number of the one which immediately precedes,
a b being attached thereto.

The new edition has received much benefit from the discussion of
the first by Prof. G. Hoffmann in the "Lit. Centralblatt" of 4 th March,
1882, — as well as from other printed and written notices from his hand.

The late Prof. Bensley, as well as Dr. J. 0. Knudson and Dr. H.
Sclmlthess farther earned my gratitude by pointing out various inaccuracies,
particularly errors of the press. And after all, in preparing the second
edition, I came upon a few more blunders, some of them rather serious.
If, as I venture to hope, the now form of the book should turn out to
be tolerably free from annoying mistakes of the press, this is due
very especially — seconded by the dexterity of the compositor — to the

PKEFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION. XV

careful first correction of proofs, undertaken by Dr. Chamizer, the
director of the printing house of W. Druguhn.

The abbreviations which I have adopted are for the most part clear
enough in themselves. Besides those which have already been mentioned
as indicating the three Texts of the Gospels, viz. P. C. and S. the
following perhaps should be noticed: —

Addai = The Doctrine of Addai, The Apostle (ed. by G. Phillips).

Aphr. = The Homilies of Aphraates (ed. by W. Wright).

Anc. Doc. = Ancient Syriac Documents (collected and edited by
W. Cureton, with a preface by W. Wright).

Apost. Apocr. = Apocryphal Acts of the Apostles. Vol. I (ed. by
W. Wright).

Barh. = Barhebraeus.

Ephr. = S. Ephraem Syri Opera (Roman edition).

Ephr. Nis. = S. Ephraemi Syri Carmina Nisibena (ed. by G.
Bickell).

Isaac — Isaaci Antiocheni Opera (ed. by G. Bickell).

Jac. Ed.. = Jacob of Edessa.

Jac. Sar. = Jacob of Sariig.

John Eph. = The Third Part of the Ecclesiastical History of John,
Bishop of Ephesus (ed. by W. Cureton).

Joseph — Histoire complete de Joseph, par St. Ephraein[?] ed.
by Paul Bedjan, 2. ed. Paris 1891).

Jos. Styl. — The Chronicle of Joshua, The Stylite (ed. by W.Wright),
[wrongly attributed to Joshua.]

Jul. = Julianos der Abtrunnige (ed. by J. G. E. Hoffmann).

Land = Anecdota Syriaca (ed. by J. P. N. Land).

Mart. — Acta Martyrum Orientalium et Occidentalium (ed by
Steph. Ev. Assemanus).

Moes. — Monumenta Syriaca ex Bom. codd. Collecta (ed. by
G. Moesinger).

Ov. = S. Ephraemi Syri, : Eabulae Episcopi Edesseni, Balaei
Aliorumque Opera Selecta (ed. by J. Jos. Overbeck).

X VI PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION.

Sim. = Life of St. Simeon Stylites,— in tlie 2 nd Volume of the Acta
Martyrum (eel. by Stepli. Ev. Assemanus).

Sjjio. — Spicilegium Syriacum (ed. by W. Onrcton).

Of Syriac abbreviations note 'jlo = X»V*o "and the rest" — &c.

Strasslmrg i. E. August ] 898.

TH. NoLDEKE.

NOTE ON THE ENGLISH EDITION.

I am glad to have the opportunity of expressing here my satis-
faction with Dr. Griehton's translation of my book, and my hearty re-
cognition of the great care and ability with which he has performed his
task. Special thanks are also due on my part to the translator, for recti-
fying certain errors which had crept into the original work in the case of
several of the citations. I venture to hope that the hook, in its new form,
will prove useful to a still wider circle of readers.

Strusshurg i. E. March 1904.

Th. Noldeke.

CONTENTS.

INTRODUCTION.

PART EIRST. ORTHOGRAPHY AND PHONOLOGY.

I. ORTHOGRAPHY.

Letters, ^

§ 1. Form of tlie Letters 1

§ 2. ' Pronunciation iS

§ 3. Disposition of Words 4

Vowel Expression.
(a) By Towel Letters.

§ 4. Actual Use B

§ 5. Apparent Use of I (I

(b) By Other Signs.

§ 6. Simple Points 6

§ 7. Combination of Points . 7

§ 8. System of Vowel-marking by Points 7

§ 9. SyBtem of Vowel-marking by Greek Letters 8

§ 10. Mixed System 8

§ 11. Marking Length of Vowels 9

§ 12. Marking Absence of Vowel 9

§ 13. Examples: Use of Vowel Signs 9

Other Heading- Signs.

§ 14. Diacritic Point in * and j 9

§ 15. Rukk&khB, and Quslaya 10

§ 16. Plural Points 10

§ 17. Upper and Under Line 11

XYIII CONTENTS.

P*ge

Interpimctuatton and Accents.

§ 18. Interpuncfcuation 12

§ 19. Accents ' 12

II. PHONOLOGY.

1. CONSONANTS.

General Statement.

§ 20. Beginning of the Syllable 13

§ 21. Doubling 13

§ 22. Assimilation 14

Rukkakhd and QuSMya.

§ 23. R. and Q. in individual -words 15

§ 24. R. and Q. in closely associated words 19

§ 25. R, and Q. in Greek words 19

8 26, Dentals and Sibilants 20

§ 27, Labials 21

Liquids.

§ 28. n ... 22

§ 29. 7 22

§ 30. r 22

§ 31. Unusual Abbreviations with Liquids 23

§ 31 b . n becoming I in foreign words 23

Gutturals.

§ 32. Falling away of initial I . , 23

§ 33. Treatment of medial I 23

§ 34. Auxiliary Vowel of the I 24

§ 35. Orthographio Note on I 24

§ 36. II becoming U 25

§ 37. i* 25

§ 38. m 25

§ 39. Greek rh 26

The Vowel- Letters o and -.

% 40. Usual Changes 26

§ 41. o and « as representing the 2 nd and 3 rd Radical 29

2. VOWELS.

Long and Short Vowels in open and dosed Syllables.

§ 42. Long Vowels 29

§43. Short Voweli 29

CONTENTS. XIX

Pago
Some of the most important Vowel Changes.

§ 44. a 31

§ 45. a 82

§46. ! 82

1 47. 33

§ 48. o, o 33

§ 49, au and ai 34

§ 60. Loss of Vowels 35

New Vowels and Syllables.

§ 61. Vowel prefixed— (AM Prosthetic) 37

§ 52. Auxiliary Vowels 37

Influence of the Consonants upon the Vowels.

§ 53. Of I 38

§ 64. Of the other Gutturals ana of r ... ' 39

J 65. 3. STRONGER ALTERATIONS 39

5 66. 4. TOM 40

PART SECOND. MOEPHOLOGY.

§ 57. Strong ana Weak Boots 41

3 68. Variation of Weak Roots 42

i) 59. RootB med. gem 4 ^

5 60. Quadriliteral Roots 43

5 61. Nouns ana Verbs 43

j 62. Interjection 4 3

I. NOUNS.

1. PRONOUNS.

Personal Pronouns.

j 63. Subject-Forms *<

j 64. Enclitic Forms with Participles and Adjectives 45

J 65. Possessive Suffixes ^

j 66. Object Suffixes 46

i 67. Demonstrative Pronouns 47

j 68. Interrogative Pronouns 47

j 69. Tlic Relative Pronoun . . 47

XX

CONTENTS.

2. NOUNS IN THE STRICTER SENSE.
(Substantives and Adjectives.)

§70.
§71.
§72.
§73.
§74.
§75.
§76.
§77.
§78.
§79.
§8".
§81.

§ 84.
§ 85.
§86.

§87.

§90.
§ 81.
§91".

§92.

A. GENDER, NUMBER, STATE. I'M"

General Statement. Paradigm of the simplest Forms ..•■•''"

Insertion of - before the Feminine-ending , . ■!■

PI. Emph. St. in ait/a r '"

Abs. and Constr. States (corresponding) ''"

PI. from Enlarged forms in an

Fern, in ithu

Eem. in aha 62

Eem. in otha "*

Eem. in dtha 52

PI. in wilha r >:l

Feminine-ending treated as a Radical 51

Falling away of Fem.-ending in PI 5-1

Assumption of Fem.-ending in PI 55

Feminine-ending: ai 55

List of Feminines not having a Fem.-ending 5;t

Fluctuation of Gender in Names of Animals 58

Radical 1 treated as Fem.-ending 58

Nouns of Common Gender 5!)

Gender of Greek Words 60

Greek Plural-endings 60

Nouns undergoing no change in Plural 61

Defective Nouns .62

Certain Abstracts expressed by Plurals 62

B. BDRVET OE THE NOMINAL EORMS.

Preliminary Observations 62

§ 98.

§ 94.

§ 95.

§ 96.

§ 97.

§100.
§ 101:
§ 102.
§108.

(AA) Tri-radical Nouns uii-auyiucided cxtcrmtUij.
The Shortest Forms.

Preliminary Observations
With a and e of Strong Root .
„ „ Roots primae I

primae - (o)
mediae I

With «i of Strong Root

mediae • (and -) . , . 00

middle n 66

tertiae t fi6

tertiae *. (•) 66

mediae oeminatae 67

67

xxt

CONTEHT&

. . . TO

§ 104. With ti of Weak Eoois m

§ 105. With falling away of I s ' Bad

With a after the l" Radical.

§ 106. With short Vowel after 2" d Bad '.'.'. (Ill

§ 107. With after 2" a Kad ... ^

§ 108. With ! after 2"> a Bad

§ 108. With sliort Vowel of the l" and a of the a*" 1 K' ul -

With short Vowel of the l" and i (e, ai) of the a ,ul •**«»•

§ 110. With i of 2 nd Kad '.„

§ 111. With I of 2° d Kad I,

§ 112. With ai of 2» a Had

§ 113. With short Vou-el of the !•' ami a (5) of the. a"' 1 Tlad. ■ ■ "■

With Doubling of the Middle Radical.

i 114. With two short Vowels _

J 116. With a after the 1", and a after the 2 nd Bad "j

i 116. With e after the 1" and a after the 2 nd Bad '*

i 117. With u after the 1"' and a after the 2» d Bad. ';

i 118. With a after the l" and i after the 2= d Bad

| 119. With a after the 1" and u after the 2 m ' Bad

i 120. With e after the 1"' and «, o after the 2"" 1 Kad

7:1

§ 121. With Doubling of the 3"' Madical 7;t

(BB) Nouns of Four or more Radicals without Bvr.tarua.1 liirmnr.

§ 122. Varions Forms ^ ;1

§ 123. Abstract Nouns with u—d "

§ 124. Five-lettered Nouns ™

§125. Presumptive Compounds '*

(CO) Formations with J J re/i;rax.

§ 126. With m ""

§ 127. With t ?»

§ 127*. Other Prefixes . . 77

(DD) Formations with Sti//hrun.

With an (on).

§ 128. Abstract Nouna and Nouns Substantive 77

§ 129. Adjectives . . . "H

§ 180. Nomina Agentis "W

§ ISO 1 '. With » 711

XXII CONTENTS.

Page

Diminutives.

§ 131. With on 79

§ 132. "With m 80

§ 133. "With os 80

§ 134. Others 80

With at.

§ 135. With ai alone (nai) 80

§ 136. With ami 83

§ 137. With %,y 83

g 138. With &th 84

g 139, Traces of other Word-forming Suffixes 84

g i4o. Foreign Suffixes 85

0. COMPOUNDS.

§ 141. Genitive- Compounds 85

§ 142. Gender of such Compounds 86

§ 143. Compounds with la 86

§ 144. D. REMARK ON THE TREATMENT OP GREEK PROPER-NAMES . . 86

§ 145, E. ATTACHMENT OP THE POSSESSIVE SUFFIXES .... 87

E. LIST OE ANOMALOUS NOUNS.

§ 146. Substantives and Adjectives 91

§ 147. Pronominals 94

3. NUMERALS.

Cardinal Numbers.

§ 148. Leading Forms . 95

§ 149, Forms with Suffixes 96

§ 150. Days of the month 97

§ 151. Another Substantive-Form 97

§ J.62. Numerals in Compound Expressions 97

g 15B. Ordinal Numbers 98

§ 164. Other Forms derived from Numerals 98

4, PARTICLES.

§ 155. Adverbs and Cojyundiom 98

Prepositions,

§ 166. Lilt of Prepositions 101

§ 157. Prepositions with SuffixeB 108

OOSTBNTS.

H. TEKBS. _ m

6 158. Preliminary Observations

, rr i ... Km

§ 159. Tri-radtcal Verbs

Verbs with three strong Iiadicals.

§160. Peal I,,,!

§161. Hardness and Softness of the Radicals |()| .

§ 162. Ethpeel ' |, l7

§ 163. Pael and Ethpaal K, 7

§ 164. 'Aphel and Ettaphal |„.

§ 165. Partiolples | ( ,H

§ 166. Nomina Agentis j,, H

§ 167. Infinitive j ( ,j,

§ 168. Paradigm of tie Regular Verb

Verbs with Gutturals.

§ 169. Mediae Qutturalis '"'ill

§ 170. Tertiae Qutturalis

Weak Verbs.

§ 171. Verba mediae I "

§ 172. Verba tertiae ( .!.

§ 173. Verba primae i

§ 174. Verba primae I

§ 175. Verba primae a and -

§176. Verba tertiae - |*1

§ 177. Verba mediae a and, - *",

§178. Verba mediae geminatae J" 7

§ 179. Verbs weak in more than one liadical "»*

Quadriliteral ami Multiliteral Verbs.

§180. Formation of Quadriliterals 'j'"

§ 181. Inflection ,! "

§182. Multiliteral Verbs Iaa

g 183. List of Anomalous Verbs Kiy

Verbs with Object- Suffixes, (a.) With strong Termimtidl.

§ 184. Leading Rules '**

§185. Paradigm: Regular Verb with Suffixes 188

§ 186. Observations on the Perfect KIH

§187. Examples of Variations I' 1H

§188. On the Imperfect IM

§ 189. Examples of Variations MO

§190. On the Imperative, and the 2" d Sing. m. Impf. Mil

§191. On the Infinitive UK

(6) Verba tertiae — with Suffixes.

§ 192. Leading Rules 143

§ 19B. Paradigm of Verb Tert. - with Pronominal Sufilxo Mi)

XXIV

CONTENTS.

§ 194. On the Perfect 'jg

§ 195. On the Imperfect 146

§ 196. On. the Imperative ^ 7

§ 190*. Transition of Verba tertiae I to Verbs tertiae « before Suffixes ... 147

§ I97 - Quadriliterals before Suffixes 147

§ 198 - Reflexive Verbs before Suffixes 148

§ 199 - JU 148

PART THIRD. SYNTAX.

I. THE SEPARATE PARTS OF SPEECH.

§ 200. Preliminary Observations 150

1. NOUNS.

§ 8GL A. GENDER 150

B. ABSOLUTE STATE: EMPHATIC STATE.

§ 202. Aba. St. in the Substantive 151

§ 203, State of the Attributive Adjective ! 157

§ 204. State of the Predicative Adjective 158

C. GENITIVE AND CONSTRUCT STATE.

§ 205. Genitive Connection by the Oonstr. St. and by j 161

§ 206. Conatr. St. before Prepositions . . . . , 164

§ 207. Constr. St. before Adverbs . . 165

§ 20R. Separation of Genitive from Governing Word 165

§ 209. Nouns with ;, when Governing Noun is not expressed 106

§ 210. Determination of Governing Word 167

D. CO-OItDlNATION.

§ 211. Attributive Adjective 168

§ 212. Apposition lg 9

§ 218. _ Loose Apposition l 6 g

§ 214. Apposition in Words denoting Measure 170

§ 215, Apposition of "much", "little", "many", "few" 170

§ 216. Expressions of condition or state ("as") 171

E. Vd.

§ 217. In Aba. and Emph. St 171

§ 218. In ConBtr. St. and with Suffixes ! 171

CONTENTS. XXY

Page

§ 219. F. rr » 173

G. PRONOUNS.
Personal Pronouns.

§ 220. Separate 174

§ 221. Enclitic «<* for Emph as i sing-purposes 175

§ 22a. Pronominal Suffixes for emphasising Determined Nouns 175

§ 223. Reflexive Pronouns 176

§224, Pleonastic V with Pronominal Suffixes 177

§ 224*. Reflexive Pronominal Suffix with the Genitive 177

§ 225. ^; . . . . , 177

Demonstrative Pronouns.

§ 226. Adjective- and Substantive-use . . . . : 179

§ 227. Personal Pronoun of 3 rd pera. placed with demonstrative effect before

Substantives and before other Demonstratives 180

§ 228. "Weakening of the demonstrative force 180

§ 229. "This"-"That" 181

§ 230. "The very same" 181

Interrogative Pronouns.

§ 231. Substantive- and Adjective-use 181

§ 232. ""What?" 181

§ 233. <u» 182

§ 234. M 182

The Relative Pronoun.

§ 235. By itself 183

§236. "With Correlative 183

H. NUMERALS.

§ 237. Numeral, and Numbered Object 185

§ 238. Determination of that which is numbered 186

§ 239. Cardinal numbers used for Ordinal numbers 186

§ 240. Distributive Expression. Grouping. Approximate numbers . . . . 186

§ 241. Adverbial Expressions 187

§ 242. "One another" 187

J. ADVERBIAL EXPRESSION.

§ 243. Substantives as Adverbs 188

§ 244. Adjectives as Adverbs of Quality 190

§ 245. AdverbB belonging to an Adjective or another Adverb 190

K. PREPOSITIONS.

§246. Separation of the Preposition from its Regimen 191

§ 247. V 191

§ 248. a 193

§ 249. « 193

XXVI CONTENTS.

Pago

§ 250. Ski. 196

§ 281. "Between" 197

§ 252. Prepositional Phraaea treated like Substantives 198

2. VERBS.
A. PEKSON AND GENDER.

§ 253. Subject of the 3 rd pers. not expressed 199

§ 251. Impersonal Expression. "It" 399

B. TENSES AND MOODS.

Perfect.

§ 255. Tempus Sistoricum 202

§ 266. Pure Perfect 202

§ 267. Pluperfect 203

§ 258. Future-Perfect. Perfect in Conditional Clauaes 203

§ 269. In Hypothetical Clauses 204

§ 260. loo, Optative 205

§ 261. loo, Subjunctive 205

§ 262. Other dependent Perfects 206

§ 268. Perfeot -with loo, . . 206

Imperfect.

§ 264. Future 207

§ 266. Imperfect in Conditional Clauses 207

§ 266. Modal Colouring 208

§ 267. Dependent Imperfect 208

§ 268. Imperfect with loo, 209

Participles.

§269. Active Participle. Present 211

§ 270. Future 211

§ 271. In Conditional OlauseB 212

§ 272. In Dependent Clauses . 213

§ 273. Use of Part, in denoting what was on the point of happening in the Past 215

§ 274. Historical Present 216

§ 275. Contemporary Condition in the Past 215

§ 276. Modal Colouring 216

§ 277. Active Participle with loo, 216

§ 278. Passive Participle. For the Perfect 218

§ 279. With V, 219

§ 280. Active Use 220

Participles used as Nouns.

§ 281. As Pure SubstantiveB 221

§ 282. Act. Participle of the Peal. Noriun Agentis of the Peal 221

CONTENTS. XXVII

Taga

§ 283. Other Active Participles and Nomina Ag 222

§ 284. Passive Participles 223

§ 285. Imperative 224

§ 286. Infinitive 224

C. GOVERNMENT OE THE VERB.

§ 287. Object expressed by the Personal Pronoun 226

§ 288. Object designated by means of V in the case of Determined Substantives 227

§ 289. ^ of the Object alongside of another \- 231

§ 290. Double-transitive Construction 232

§ 291. Passive with Object 233

§ 292. Character of Objective-designation in Syriac 233

Infinitive with Object.

§ 293. Verb-Construction 2U '

§ 294. Noun-Construction 235

Infinitive Absolute.

§ 295. Placed before the Verb 235

§ 296. Placed after the Verb 236

g 297. "Without Finite Verb 236

§ 298. Abstracts of another form taking the part of General Object ... 236

D. to*.

§ 299. Separate and Enclitic Forms 238

§ 300. Forms of to* used for Emphasis and Modification 239

E. *J.

§ 301. Preliminary Observations 240

§ 302. With separate Personal Pronouns 240

§ 303. "With Suffixes, and alone 241

§ 304. to* i-t with Feminine and with Plural 243

§ 305. iwl employed like a Participle and with Forms of to* 243

§ 306. KA with Infinitive and Complete Clauses 244

§ 307. ^ &J "to have" 244

§ 808. K,l and to* with Adverbs of Quality 244

§ 308 b .V *-l = simple *-t 245

n. THE SENTENCE.
1. THE SIMPLE SENTENCE.

A. THE SIMPLE SENTENCE IN GENERAL.

§ 309. Nominal Sentence. Verbal Sentence 245

§ 310. Copula wanting 245

XXVIII CONTENTS.

Page

§ 8X1, Pronoun of the 3 rd pers. as Copula 246

§ 312, Personal Pronoun as Subject 247

§313. K>1 as Copula. "Wide choice in expressing the Copula 249

§ 314. Subject wanting 24!)

§ 315. Time-range of the Nominal Sentence 250

§ 316. Separation of the Subj. from the Pred, by means of o 250

§ 317. Nominative Absolute 250

Concordance of the Parts of the Sentence,

§ 318. Collectives as Sing, and Plur 251

§ 319. Plur. in Phrases with j-o 253

§ 320. Prep, -with Substantive as Subject 254

§ 321. Verb in the Sing, with Subj. in the Plur 255

§ 321 1 '. oi^* ^ &c 255

§ 322. Gender and Number of a Group of Nouns coupled with o or a like

Conjunction 256

§ 323. The different Persons (l 8t , 2 nd , 3 rd ) when bound together 258

Arrangement of Words.

§ 324. Position of the Subj. and Pred 258

§ 325. Position of the Object 261

§ 326. Position of Adverbial Qualifications 261

§ 327. Position of certain Particles 262

B. SPECIAL KINDS OF SENTENCES.

Negative Sentences.

§ 328. jl and its strengthened Forms 262

§ 329. Position of the Negative 266

§ 330. Double Negative 266

§ 331. Interrogative Sentences 267

2. COMBINATION OF SEVERAL SENTENCES OK CLAUSES.
A. COPULATIVE SENTENCES.

§ 332. Ellipses in Copulative Sentences ' 268

§ 333. Negation in Copulative Sentences 270

§ 334. Copulative Sentence for a Contemporaneous circumstance or for a Con-
sequence 271

§ 335. Close Combination of two Verbs by nutans of "and" 272

§ 336. Government of suoh Combinations 278

§ 337. Close Combination of two Verbs without "and" 274

§ 338. Government of such Combinations 276

§ 389. Note upon o . 277

§ 840. • and «l doubled 277

CONTENTS. XXIX

B. RELATIVE CLAUSES.

Page

Attributive Relative. Clauses,

§ 341. Relative Pronoun and Referring- Form 278

§ 342. Referring Form in the caae of the Subject 278

§ 343. Referring Form in tlie case of the Object 279

§ 344. Referring Form with Genitive and Prepositions 280

§ 346. Referring Form in a second clause 280

§ 346. Referring Form expi-essed by a Demonstrative 281

§ 347. Relative Clauses attached to Adverbial Expressions 282

§ 348. Relative Clauses attached to Adverbs 284

§ 349. Placing before the Relative Clause the Preposition proper to the Refer-
ring Form 284

§ 350. Relative Clauses referring to the l Bt and 2 nd Pers. and to the Vocative.

Apposition to the Vocative 285

§ 351. Relative Clauses with ,jj — +jj 287

§ 352. Relative Clause preceding its Noun 288

§ 353. "Whosoever" 289

§ 354, Omission of the ; 289

§ 355. Short Adverbial Qualifications as Relative Clauses 289

§ 356. Relative Clause as Attribute to a whole Sentence 290

Conjunctional Relative Clauses.

§ 357. Preliminary Observations 290

§ 358. Relative Clause as Subject, Object, Predicato 291

§ 359. Relative Clause in the position of a Genitive 292

fc) 360. Relative Clause dependent upon a Preposition 292

§ 361. Abridging- Substantive before Relative Clause 294

§ 362. Abridging Demonstrative Pronoun before Relative Clause .... 295

§ 363. , ^o 296

§ 364. r l 296

§ 365. Other Adverbs as Correlatives 299

§ 366. j "in order that", "Bince" &c 299

§ 367. ) before Oratio Directa 300

§ 368. , left out 301

§ 369. j repeated - 301

§ 370. j not at the head of its Clause 301

§ 371. Relative Clauses set in a Series . . . 302

C. INDIRECT INTERROGATIVE CLAUSES.

§ 372. Proper 303

§ 873. Ui_, &c 305

». CONDITIONAL CLAUSES.

§874. vl 307

§875. •& sn

XXX CONTENTS.

Pngo
§ 376. ,1 for o* 314

§ 377. Clauses 'which i-esemble Conditional Clauses 314

Structure of Periods. Involution and other Irregular Forms.

j 378. Structure of Periods 314

! 379. Involution, or Enclosing of one Clause within another 315

j 380. Parenthesis 315

j 381. Anacoluthon 315

} 382. Ellipsis 316

APPENDIX.

On the Use of the Letters of the Alphabet as Ciphers 316

ADDITIONS AND CORRECTIONS 318

INDEX OP PASSAGES 321

INTRODUCTION.

From the time the Greeks came to have a more intimate acquain-
tance with Asia, they designated by the name of "Syrians" the people
who called themselves "Aramaeans". Aramaic or Syriac, in the wider
sense of the word, is a leading branch of the Semitic speech-stem, —
particularly of the Northern Semitic. This language, extending far beyond
its original limits, prevailed for more than a thousand years over a very
wide region of "Western Asia, and farther did duty as a literary language
for. less cultivated neighbouring populations. It separated into several
dialects, of which some have been preserved for us in literary documents,
and others only in inscriptions. — It is one of these Aramaic dialects
which we purpose to describe in the present work. This particular
dialect had its home in Edessa and the neighbouring district of Western
Mesopotamia, and stretched perhaps as far as into Northern Syria.
Accordingly it is called by the authors who make use of it, the "Edessan"
or "Mesopotarnian tongue", but usually it lays claim to the name of
Syriac pure and simple, as being the chief Syriac dialect. Occasionally
indeed it has also been designated Aramaic, although, in Christian times,
the name "Aramaic" or "Aramaean" was rather avoided, seeing that it
signified much the same thing as "heathen".

Syriac, in the narrower meaning, — that is to say, the dialect of
Edessa — , appears to have come somewhat nearer to the Aramaic
dialects of the Tigris regions, than to those of Central Syria and
Palestine. As far, however, as our imperfect knowledge goes, the dialect
stands out quite distinctly from all related ones.

XXXII

INTEODUOTION.

In Edessa this dialect was employed as a literary language, cer-
tainly long before tlie introduction of Christianity. But it attained
special importance, from the time the Bible was translated into it
(probably in the 2" a century) and Edessa became more and more the
capital of purely Aramaic Christianity (in a different fashion from
the semi-Greek Antiooh). With Christianity the language of Edessa
pushed its way evon into the kingdom of Persia. By the 4'" century, as
being then Syriac pure and simple, it serves (and that exclusively) the
Aramaean Christians on the Tigris as their literary language. During
that period, so far as we know, it was only in Palestine that a local
Aramaic dialect was — to a certain extent— made use of by Christians,
for literary purposes. The Syriac writings of the heathen of Harran,
the neighbouring city to Edessa,— of which writings, unfortunately,
nothing has been preserved for us — , must have exhibited but a trifling
difference at the most from those of the Christians.

The language and its orthography already present such a settled
appearance in the excellent manuscripts of the 5*" century, that we can
luvrdly doubt that scholastic regulation was the main factor in improv-
ing the popular tongue into the literary one. The Greek model has been
effective here. The influence of Greek is shown directly, not merely in
the intrusion of many Greek words, but also in the imitation of the
Greek use of words, Greek idiom and Greek construction, penetrating
to the most delicate tissues of the language. Numerous translations and
imitations (such as the treatise on Eate, composed after Greek patterns
by a pupil of Bardesanes, about the beginning of the 3* a century) furthered
this process. But we must carefully distinguish between Greek elements
which had made good their entry into the language, and such Graecisms
as must have been forced upon it by pedantic translators and imitators.
Many Hebraisms also found their way into Syriac through the old trans-
lations of the Bible, in which Jewish influence operated strongly.

The golden age of Syriac roaches to tho 7 th century. The Syrians
of that day belonged partly to the Roman empire, and partly to the
Persian. The cleavage was made more pronounced by the occlesiastical
divisions, occasioned specially by the unhappy Christological controversies.

IHTBOEDCTION. XXXIII

Tho Persian Syrians decided mostly for the teaching of the Nestorians,
—the Roman Syrians for that of the Monaphiy sites or Jacobites. And
when the Academy of Edessa, the intellectual capital, was closed (489)
to the former as declared heretics, they founded educational institutions
of their own,— of which in particular the one at Nisibis attained to
high repute. This separation had as a consequence au abiding severance
of tradition, even with respect to the language and the mode of writing
it. Assuredly the variety of the common dialects in olden time cannot
have been without influence upon the pronunciation of Syriac, in the
mouths even of cultivated persons in different localities, — just as in
Germany the Upper-Saxon language of polite intercourse assumes a very
perceptible colouring, conditioned by the local dialect it meets with, in the
case of the inhabitant for instance of Holstein or tho Palatinate or Upper
Bavaria, — pr as in Italy the Tuscan tongue is similarly modified, in the case
of the native of Lombardy, Genoa or Naples. Many of these differences,
however, rest doubtless upon rules of art laid clown by the Schools. So
far as we find here a genuine variety in the forms of the language, it is
sometimes the Eastern, sometimes the Western tradition, which preserves
the original with the greater fidelity. Naturally the more consistent of
the two is the Western, which as a whole restores to us the pronunciation
of the Edessans, in the remodelled form in which it appeared about the
year 600 or 700, — that is, at a time subsoqu'ent to the golden age of
the language.

The conquest of the Aramaean regions by the Arabs brought the
commanding position of Syriac to a sudden close. True, it lived on for
sometime longer in Edessa, and Aramaic dialects long maintained them-
selves in remote districts, as they partly do up to tho present day; but
Syriac speedily lost its standing as a language of cultivated intercourse
extending over a wide region. The very care which was now devoted to
the literary determination of tho old speech is a token that men clearly
perceived it was passing away. It can hardly bo doubted that about tho
year 800 Syriac was already a dead language, although it was frequently
spoken by learned men long aftor that time Tho power of tradition,
which keeps it up as an occlosiastical language, and tho zoalous study

XXXIV IKTEODUCTION.

of ancient writings, — had the effect of leading even the later Syriac
authors, among whom were several considerable men, to "wield their an-
cestral speech with great slrill. Besides, the influence of the actually
living tongues — the Aramaic popular dialects and the Arabic — did
not attain its prevalence with such a disturbing effect as might have
been expected. But on the whole, for more than a thousand years,
Syriac — as an ecclesiastical and literary language — has only been pro-
longing a continually waning existence.

PART FIRST.
ORTHOGRAPHY AND PHONOLOGY.

I. OETHOGEAPHY.

§ 1. A. The character most in use in Syriac printing is that ofuormojthe
the West-Syrians (Jacobites and Maronites), of which the proper name um "'
is Serta, {Serto). It has been developed out of the older one, which is
called Estrangelo, properly arooyyiXy). This character also is pretty often
employed in printing, particularly in more recent times. The same tiling
may be said of the Nestorian character, which comes nearer the Estrangelo
than the Serta does'. "We accordingly give, in the following Table not
only the Serta letters of the alphabet but also the old or Estrangelo
letters, as well as the Nestorian letters.

B. All Syriac styles of writing are Cursive ; the most of the letters
must be connected right and left within the word, — and thus several
small modifications of shape arise. In the case of the Serta, we give all
these forms; for the Estrangelo and the Nestorian character it may
suffice to give the special final forms, in addition to the main forms. ( x )

The form, which is given here in European character, of the names
of the letters, aims at representing the older pronunciation: brackets
enclose the diverging pronunciation of the later West-Syrians. Second-
ary forms, varying both in sound and character, are also met with.

O Of. besides, the Plate of Alphabetical Characters by Eotjng, appended to
this work.

1

— 2 —

1,

it

K

II

If

;bar

2.
1
■&'■

C 1

at

o

icter
3.

d

■d

1

i.

o<d

I s

d

a

•5

1

Names.

Sound- Value and
Transcription.

d

>

'5
ta

1
1

1

!

J

—

—

rC

1

aSs

Alaf (Olaf )

Spiritus lenis (')

X

1

A

Ck,

=i

sx

a

a

*-o

Beth

l>;'v(/3)

3

2

^

^

•*s>

■«s,

^

V

•w^

Giumil (Gemini)

g (hard) ; gh (7)

J

3

!

J

—

-

.1

3

&Vj or ,^»

Dalath orDaladli
(DolathorDoladh)

d; dh (0)

T

4

ot

<H

—

—

en

01

!©t

He

li

n

5

o.

—

—

o

O

oo or oio

Wan

w

1

6

J

Jl

—

—

\

*

<;or-;, -(^

Zain, Zen, or Zai

soft s (z)

t

7

w

UJ.

AJ

M,

**

_

&jU>

Hetli

hard h (h)

n

8

•4

4

^

£

\

V

M

Tetli

emphatic t (t)

£3

9

-

u.

-

*

•

«

»Q_.

Yodh (Yudh)

y

1

10

f

y

A

Si.

"\ 4

>=■

jaa

Kaf (Koi)

k; Hi

3

20

^

\>

^

^

A

A

r^

Lamadhflioniadh)

1 "

b

30

y

)»

*>

ao.

7.W

P »

jo*m

Mlm

m

a

40

V

*

J

i

_ a

V 1

^

Nun, Non

11

2

50

Iffl

uaa

.CO

m

CO

JS

K*\y.(v>

Semkath

s

D

60

■a*

■*.

X

^.

&.

i,

K

'E

peculiar gut-
tural

V

70

a

A

s

A

&

A

Ja

Pe

p; f, pli

b

80

-1

i

—

—

_S

S

i»J

SadhS (SodhS)

emphatic s (s)

s

90

J3

iA

£>

a

jq

s

l&ObO

Qof

guttural k (q)

P

100

)

►

—

—

i

S

jui, «*.$

KBsh (Bish)

r

n

200

•JL

A

a

A

z.

X

<-*

Shin

sh

tf

300

I

k

—

—

&

&

ot, oil

Tau

t; th (*)

n

400

At the end of a word we can only have a form from the 2" a column
or the l", and from the one or the other according as the preceding
letter has a form connecting to the left (Col. 3) or not. Forms from
Col. 4 can only appear in the interior of a word; while initial foraiB
must be taken from Col. 1 or 3.

Bern. The most judicious course for the beginner will be to impress
upon his memory only Cols. 1 and 3.

C. V with ! is generally written U ((1), but initial ! with V thus, S>.
For 1^ one sometimes puts SSL, and thus draws in this case two words
together. In Nestorian script a is given for final in (11).

For a, j as single letters or as ciphers, one generally writes yo, ~j.

In manuscripts a and a are often mistaken for each other from
their resemblance; so is it with j and *, and also with i, on the one
hand and *j, jj, j^, and ~ on the other. Farther it is frequently difficult
to distinguish *. from a simple m., and occasionally oven i^ from a simple
x. Even in many printed copies .a and a are far too like one another : (')
farther, ^ and i*, and m. and - are not sufficiently discriminated.

§ 2. The pronunciation of the letters can of course be determined p "»»»-
only approximately. Notice the following: o ^> j, .a I have a twofold '"'
pronunciation, one hard, answering to our b g d k p t, one soft, aspirated
or rather sibilated. Soft a is nearly the German w, or the English
and French v; soft >^= y (r/h) is nearly the Hutch ,/ (like the Arabic
4); soft }■=. I (dh) is the "English th in there, other; soft j> — Mi, or the
Herman oh in ach (not that in ieh); soft J» the Herman, English, and
French f; soft l = » (th) is the English th. in think, both. (') On the changes
of the hard and soft pronunciations v. §§ 16, 23 sijq.

o is always the vowel-sounding English w, never the German w, and
accordingly it quiescos easily and completely into a u. - has also more
of a vowel character than the German j, being nearly the English y.

C 1 ) Translator's Note: The same may be said for j. and .».

(') Translator's Note: In the transcription followed in this Edition, soft c
will be represented by v, B oft j by kh, soft a by f or jjft, and soft 1 by th; while
soft ^and j will be rendered by y and & respectively.

1»

elation.

— i — §3.

) = z is a soft s as in c/iosai, German s mBose, French in clwmr
or French z in zt'ro.

u, = J, is quite a foreign sound to us, an 7j rattled in tlie throat
(Arahic ). The East-Syrians pronounce it as a very hard Swiss eh
(Arabic ^).

^ = t is an emphatic and completely unaspirated modification of
I t, in which the tip of the tongue is pressed firmly against the palate;
j> is a similar modification of j> 7,:, produced in the hack part of the
mouth. ^ and j> are employed by the Syrians as equivalents for the
Greek sounds r and k, which at all events were quite unaspirated.

, — s is an emphatic articulation of the sound of «co s, by no means
to be rendered as a German z (— ts).

i. — ' is a guttural breathing, again quite foreign to us, which is
formed by a peculiar compression of the upper part of the windpipe. It
is nearly related to uj, and even to the Spiritus lenis . (I). Those who
render it by the latter sound will make the least considerable mistakes.

» = S is the German sell, the English s7i, or the French eft.

i seems to have been a lingual-dental, not a guttural.

The remaining consonants have nearly the same sound as the cor-
responding German or English ones.

DISPOSITION OE WORDS.
fii,,o.iiion § 3. Particles, which consist of only a single letter, i. e. of a con

of words.

sonant with a short vowel, are attached as prefixes to the following word,
thus J»^~~ Umulhl, "in rege", not (l^**. o, ^j>o waqtal, "and
killed", not ^o o, &c.

Certain short words, and to some extent even longer ones, which
together belong to the same idea, are also frequently written as one,
though not invariably. Thus VM or D .»! af la "neither", "not even";
aula or ou! ^> liar nSS, "son of man", i.e. "man"; jmj-Xd or yu^ ^o
1ml yom "every day"; p^Ni or f>^a "^o lad meddem "qukqnid";
JU.j<ua*>07, more commonly Jijojs o>o, ruh qifoZd "spirit of holiness",
"the Holy Ghost"; even ),..,. i n -xn . i po instead of J *>■« * » <&.<>-«- <$*>
maran JeSiS mlMlia "our Lord Jesus Christ", appears. On the fusion

Actual use.

§4- — 5 —

together of two words, of which the one ends in ''V, while the other be-
gins with J (St), see above § 1 C.

VOWEL EXPRESSION (A) BY VOWEL LETTERS. Vow.i n-

C A A ml prQBBion:

9 4. A. The letters ( — o are frequently made use of by the Syrians Wt&rm*
to express vowel sounds. °

! denotes every final a and e, and in certain cases e witliin the
word; that S, was pronounced o by the later West-Syrians, and that e in
part I. Thus Jao »w (mo); JLa^ao malM (medico), JLauaao mamse; b lie
("') i vjJLs jpsron (plran).

— denotes every i in the middle and end of a word, also certain
cases of e in the middle : uu bis; ,»=> bl; ^.i <Kh; ,_j^ 'oh (In). For e
there appears also -J: ^JLo or ^o ken (§ 46). In an open syllable e is
frequently not expressed at all, e. g. b.amio mcslcenu (mesluna); in an-
cient MSS. it is sometimes unindicated even in a closed syllable, e. g.
i£±A lieren.

o in tlie middle and end of a word denotes any long or short n or
u: jaaa qum; Juioa purqmiti ; ^oX^ ncylin (jwylhn); )K..^~.I teis-
bohta (teShihto); o i\vi mullm; o| ,o. Only the very common words ^oj>
1ml, 1ml "all", "every", andVoAjo mettol, mett.nl "because of" are often
in old times, and always in later times, written without o, thus ^a, ^A».
The Cod. Sin. frequently leaves out the o even in other words, e. g.
^~inN for ^»*»ftn*s luqval.

o and — farther express the diphthongs an and ai; aX Ian; IJ^a
baitd; the diphthongs m and Su arc written a.: a*X^ galUu;
wot n . N^ neyleu.

B. A final and originally short o in Greek words is expressed by I:
in pronunciation it was doubtless always lengthened. Greek a in the
middle of a word is also often written I, e. g. JAsa^o; or JL^Jba^o) So'y-
tiara &c. Even the Syriac « is sometimes thus expressed, e. ij. )JJL£
(alia for the usual JL£. In tlie very same way - appears pretty often for
? in the middle of a word, c. g. Jsanm-s! (or } y* o m W) ephl(o]>a,
mlaKcmog; i m . pn .^j (iflam*j»o) yp^atg. In quite isolated examples this
happens even in Syriac words, as J^a^^^Ijj^) </fir« ; Ie^j* (1*^*) Syre.

Apparent
use of |.

_ 6 - §§6. 6.

Greeks and at are in some writings expressed by «, e. g. i m . mn oiS*.
X&g. The desire to render Greek vowels with accuracy gave rise to
various strange forms of transcription among learned Syrians.

Greek o on the other hand is frequently left entirely unexpressed,
e. ff. .~\~~ Baaihsiog, alongside of jp n . Vm-. ; la nnn ^al, Jaamal
alongside of ) aa - "" ■ 9J, Jaojamsl Mmamo;. Thus the placing of the
vowel letters in Greek words is far more fluctuating than in native ones.

§ 5. A distinction is to be made between the employment of ! as
a vowel sign and those cases in which it has its place from etymological
considerations, — especially from having been formerly an audible spurt-
tus Urns: e. g. Wl» malakha "angel", from K?fc$D; !*J=» ?'«'" ('«>'") ""
well" from snija (Hebrew Mj%); ^K 'dllin "enter" (pi. part.), be-
cause of the sing. ^Jhw 'a'el "enters" (sing, part.) &c.

IZiJ'' VOWEL EXPRESSION (B) BY OTHEE SIGNS.

»>Byoti.. r g ^ Tbig insufficient representation of vowel sounds was gradually

S° made up for by new signs. At first, in some words which might be pro-
nounced in various ways, a point over the letter concerned was employed
to signify the fuller, stronger pronunciation, and a point wider it to
denote the finer, weaker vocalisation, or even the absence of vowel sound.
Thus there was written (and is written) Jjii^. 'tivada "a work", set over
against LaA 'avdd "a servant"; ^ man "what?" and man "who?", ,jp
men "from" ; ^V&i qatel "he Mils" (part.) and qattel "he murdered"
(Pael), ^^^J? qetal "he killed" (Peal); \h±k. H(n)ta "a year", !Ki* Senthii
"sleep" ; JUiA maM "king", Ji\y mellm "counsel"; lo^tuvu "good";
f-l tella "fame"; ow hem "that" (masc.), o« liil "he"; wot Mi "that"
(fern.), wen M "she"; ^qjoi hanon "those", v aJoi hennon "they" &c.
Frequently it is held to be sufficient to indicate by the upper point the
vowels a, a, — e. g. in bi-ro seydma "setting", !r-f aida, "what?" (fern.),
^wLi.j daWU "timorous", without giving also to words written with the
same consonants the under point proper to them, vie: — Jvi.tr> stma "set",
if! toa "a hand", ^y} det.nl "terrible". Here too we must note the
1 employment of « almost without exception to signify the suffix of the
\ 3 Id pers. fern, sing., e. g. 6*a lah "in her" as set over against o*a leh

§§7.8. — 7 —

"in him"; 6t&\^o qetaltdh "tliou hast killed her"; unci so also «
qebdmeh "before her"; ©t_A^»oj neqtiUh "lie is slaying her" (Impf.), &c.
In the latter case this system has already in part given up the
exact, and relatively phonetic significance of the 'points'. That signi-
ficance, however, came to he abandoned in many other cases hesides, as
■when, for instance, one began to write ^a-co sdm "he placed", because it
is a Perfect like "^^o qetal. Other considerations too mixed themselves
up with the matter; thus it became the practice to write the l at pers.
sing. perf. with — over the first consonant, e. <j, k^^o qetleth "I killed"
(wterfeci). The points, upper and under, — particularly the former, — are
often wrongly placed ; thus ^ is found for qS. 'aved "does", and
oo\cd for jaXm saleq "ascends".

§ 7. Farther, a second or third point was often added to distinguish combine
more exactly between verbal forms in particular; for example, there was poill t B .
written Lt^*» 'evdeth, % t ~? V or (East-Syrian) ly*>v 'evdatli "she did";
alio manu "who is?" compared with oi» mdnan "what is?"; {$?* here
"creatus" as distinguished from l*z* herd "ci'eavit" andlva hare "creat", &c.
This complicated system, often fluctuating according to districts and
schools, and seldom faithfully attended to by copyists, still maintained
a footing in many forms, even alongside of the employment of a more
exact indication of the vowels.

. § 8. Out of this punctuation then, there was formed, with the system
Nestorians first of all, a complete system of Voivel-Sy/ns. To be sure it mar king
never attained to perfect consistency and universal acceptance; even the yp(1,lta -
appellations of the vowels fluctuate a good deal. The system is used in
Nestorian impressions, on the authority- of good manuscripts, after the
following scheme: —

— ~ a Petlidlid, e. g. >s ha.

-— a Zeqdfd (or according to Nestorian pronunciation, Ziqapa): o ha.

—^ e, I Iievdsa arrVclia or Zeluma pesiqit: •=* he.

— r e Eevdm haryd or Zeldmd qahjd: o he.

— t Hevasd: »*a hi.

o u, u 'Esdsd alllsd: as hit.

6 o, o 'Esasa rewfya: da ho.

§§ 9- 10.

System
of vowel-
marking
by Greek
letters.

Mixed

Hem. This orthography, — which otherwise is tolerably consistent, —
substitutes in certain cases -^ for — , for no reason that can bo dis-
covered, e. (j. in Passive Participles like JUa "built". In old manuscripts
— is largely interchangeable with —^ or — , w is also found in isolated
cases for w, particularly for an initial t. — - is also written for- — .
For other variations, v. §§ 42. 46. 48.- — 'On the representation of ai
and an v. § 49 A.

§ 9. Much clearer is the system of vowel designation by small
Greek letters set above or below the line, — a system which grew up
among the Jacobites about A. D. 700. Unfortunately, however, this
system represents in many parts a later pronunciation of the vowels,
which had become prevalent at' that time, so that we cannot in the
Grammar altogether dispense with the other system, — the Nestorian.
The method practised is as follows :

— a Pethblw.

— (older a) Zeqofo.

— e Hevoso.

— I (partly for old e) Hevoso.
° J u (partly for old 0) 'Esoso.

Hem. Sometimes /' or / is found for — i. e. H, 57, following later
Greek pronunciation; for — or — there appears &, and w too for 0.
This a has been' in use with the interjection of "0!" from very ancient
times : a later and disfigured form is of. The diphthongs au and ai are
written o— , w— ; o— is an earlier form for o— ; and similar forms
occur for other diphthongs.

§ 10. A combination of a modified point-system with the Greek
system is in favour among the later "West-Syrians and in our own im-
pressions. In tins usage

— and — without distinction =■ — .

w, —— - or merely - _ = ~~^ L , — .

6 or o without any certain distinction <*• o— .

§§ "-14. - 9 —

§ 11. Bern. No one of these systems carries out a distinction Marking

length of

between long and short vowels. The designation of vowels by the Syrian vowoia.
Grammarians as "long" or "short" rests upon a misunderstanding of
Greek terms and has nothing to do with the natural quantity. Thus the
first and certainly short e in neylc is directly designated as "long Jfevosu" ,
and the second and long e as "short". The original o is for the Jacobites
a "short 'JUsuso"; for the Nestorians on the other hand it is "broad",
while u is for the former "long", for the latter "compressed"; and in
neither case is the quantity of the vowel considered, but merely the
quality.

§ 12. No established sign has been formed to denote the want of Marking
any vowel (Sk e va quiescens), nor yet the absence of a full vowel (Slt p va ' { V0W6 i,
mobile). Here and there the sign — (§ 6) or — (§ 17) serves this
purpose.

8 13. A. Examples: Nestorian: ,o<Aj.» ;=A*>a jSm& (sou sutli UmiUe Exampiea:
oemalka 'billion. Greek: <oot^*f JA^an; J^?^- ^°$ §%>$> Uvtele oemalko ai aigna.
tUllun. Mixed: ^o^*} JLa^ao? )Jio^. toj, The blending might be con-
trived in many other ways besides, for instance, ILba"^ loj &c.

B. From practical considerations, we employ in this work the
Greek vowel-signs almost always, using however, — in conformity with
the practice of the East-Syrians, and in general of the West-Syrians
also, — the sign — - for that vowel which is pronounced e by the East-
Syrians, and I by the West-Syrians, and in most cases discriminating 6
(original o, West-Syrian u) from o — = o (original u).

G. Syriac manuscripts are commonly content with the indication of
the vowels given in § 6: only occasionally do they give exact vowel signs.
But Nestorian manuscripts, in particular, are often fully vocalised. Man)-
Nestorian manuscripts of the Scriptures produce quite a bewildering
impression by the large number of points of various kinds employed
in them (ef. § 14 SMO-
OTHER EEADING- SIGNS.

8 14. Very ancient is the point which never fails in genuine Syriac dimyMo

point in

manuscripts, — that which distinguishes i from j. ; and ,.

— 10 — §§ 15. 16.

Buikakhs § 15. The soft pronunciation {Rukhalilid) of tlie letters a ^ j .a

QuaSays. ^ (§ 2 ) can be expressed by a point pkiced under them, the hard pronun-
ciation (Q.uSMya) by one placed over them, e. g, kaaaj nbsavt "thou
didst take", k^mj ncslicih "I took" &c. (For farther examples v. in par-
ticular § %'A et sqq.). In the ease of 3 the hard sound is commonly indi-
cated by a point set within the letter, something like -3 ; and by 3 is
represented the sound of the Greek tt (§ 25), which diverges from this,
being completely unaspirated (*) and peculiarly foreign to a Semite. Others
set down 3 =■■ f, 3 = p, and 3 = it. We shall however denote the
Syriac hard p also by s.

This system, of which certain variations appear (such as JL, with two
points, instead of L) is only carried out in very careful writing. In Nes-
torian manuscripts, however, particularly those of later origin, and in
Nestorian printed matter, the system is largely employed. At the same
tune these points are usually left out, when they would interfere with
the vowel points, e. g. ?£*=», not {&*£>; \k-Szo, not I^*».
plurftl § 16. A. From the oldest times, and regularly, plural forms,

points.

of substantives in the first place, have been distinguished by tivo
superscribed points — , called ScydmeC): thus H Vo; , tevi&ap maike,
malkatka "Hugs, queens" are distinguished from the singulars: — JL^»,
& ->\*i mailed, malketha. And so also wo»o ^\vi malkau "his kings" &e.,
although in such a case there was no possibility of mistaking the word
for a singular.

B. Substantive plurals in ^. commonly receive the sign — , but not
those of the predicative adjective, thus, ^m\ ammm "cubits", but <-;-M».
Sarririn "(are) true".

True collective nouns, which have no special plural, must take ■^- ,
e. g. JDl^. 'and "a flock", but we have f$jaa> bagrra "herd (of cattle)", be-
cause a plural }*jia baqre "herds" appears.

f 1 ) Answering to the representation of r by *£ (not by 1) and of*by*(not by u»).

( s ) The Hebrew appellation in vogue, — Mibbui is naturally unknown to the
Syrians. It was borrowed by a European scholar from the Hebrew Grammarians,
and means "plural".

§17. - 11 -

The feminine plural-forms of the finite verb and of the predicative
adjective take — , e. g. usJ^o "they (fern.) wrote", ^&»j "they (feni.)
write" (Impf.), ^kj "are good (f.)". Only, these points arc generally
wanting, when the 3 ,a pi. fern, in the perfect is written like the 3" d sing,
masc. (§ 50 B).

With the numerals there is a good deal of fluctuation. The rule that
only feminine numbers of the second decade, — because they end m the
plural in e— are to be supplied with — , is seldom strictly followed.
Numerals with i generally take — ; farther, all which end in ,.,— in par-
ticular JH, ,»{$. "two". The plural sign is the rale in numerals which
have a possessive suffix (§ 149).

C. Generally speaking, a tolerable uniformity is found,— and that
in old manuscripts,— only in cases under A; in cases under B, these ma-
nuscripts often omit the sign — , where it should stand, and employ it
instead in other cases, but without consistency, e. i). in the masc. of the
finite verb, as "■■".; "they (masc.) found" ; ,o^. t i>ta? "that they (masc.)
may be sanctified". (?)

D. The position of the points — was not thoroughly determined:
most frequently they were permitted to rest upon the ' third or fourth
letter from the end of the word. Much depends here on the fancy of
the writer; the position most favoured is over those letters which do not
rise high above the line. With the point of the letter i tho plural sign
generally blends into V, e. g. \S ! o-y&> "lords"; !■%.£«. "true"; still there are
found also -j^ "revered", ^fcmS. "twenty", YJaA "villages", and
many others.

8 17. Here and there a line over the lettor is found as a sign ofuiP" "> d

^ ■' under lina,

the want of a vowel, c. y. a-^** peley "were divided", as contrasted
with ~ ■ *^» "distributed"; nviTTi lalun "my bread". Oftener this —
stands as a sign that a consonant is to be omitted in tho pronunciation, a.;/.
I^i. t » mSrita "town", l^a lath "daughter", ioS «'("« "was". Tho Wost-

(?) The sign — in even set improperly over words, which are singular, but
look like plural, e. g. over JlxV "night" (sing. abs. st.) and over Greok words in l-y
y like lis* CXi0.

uation.

— 12 — §§ 18. 19.

Syrians employ in this case partly — , partly — especially in more re-
cent times ; and this use of the Unea oceiiltans is followed in the most of
our impressions. But commonly in MSS. such a sign is altogether
wanting, f 1 )

In contrast with the use of the upper line — , the under lino -—
is made use of, especially with the Nestorians, to denote a fuller vocali-
sation, that is to say when a vowel is inserted in order to avoid harsh-
ness, e. g. I^aa^.i'. — !&.*■?•" for !&.saj»jl "wisdom" (§ 52 C) &a. So also
v c£i.Uj = v a^JLju for ptotfj they ask (§ 34).

OTTERHJNCTUATTON AND ACCENTS,
intepniot- § 18. The oldest interpunctuatioti, which is frequently retained oven

in later times, consists of a single strongly marked point . after larger or
smaller divisions of the sentence, for which, in the case of large para-
graphs, a stronger sign *, or the like, appears. But even in very ancient
manuscripts a system oHnterpimctuation is found, of a more or loss formed
character. Later, alongside of the chief point JLidma ( fr t^ y ), the main
distinction made is between "the under point" JLKi>l ( J~^^-), "tho
upper point" ) !Sv (.JLa^ao), and "the equal points" JLaA (:JLbS»a»),— to
indicate different clauses of the sentence of greater or less importance.
To some extent other signs also are used for this purpose. The tests
of the usage are not clear, and the practice is very fluctuating, at least
on the part of copyists.

§ 19. In order to signify with accuracy, whether,— in tho recitation
of the sacred text in worship,— the individual words of a sentence should
be associated with more or with less connection,— and also what relative
tone befits each word— a complicated system of "Accents" was employed
in Syriac as well as in Hebrew. This system however appears only in
manuscripts of the Bible, and in a grammatical point of view it is of
very slender importance. In isolated cases, signs taken from this

O Sometimes the under line is found in still wider employment as a sign of
the want of a vowel, in Western MSS., e. g. JLiu Imino "who has obtained favour",
as contrasted with JLii "rancid".

§§ 20. 21. — 13 —

system are found also in other uses : thus, for instance, we may meet
with an upper point lending emphasis to the word in a summons, a
command, an interrogation. Such a point is not distinguishable in all
cases, so far as appearance goes, from the points treated of in § 6 sq.

II. PHONOLOGY.
1. CONSONANTS.

GENERAL STATEMENT.

8 20. Every word and every syllable commences with a consonant Beginning
That no word can begin with a vowel sound is expressed clearly in be- lal]le .
mitic writing by { [preceding such sound], e. g. \l\ dthe, or rather 'dike
"comes"; JLwjot 'urlid "a way"; \U\ l&a "hand", &c. In cases like >&-P
"knew", the word is spoken as if it stood v*£*l s 7§a\ and so it is even
written at times (§ 40 C).

No Syriac word begins originally with a double consonant. Yet
such a consonant seems to have been produced by the falling away of a
very short vowel in {fcvJL, ^k*. Ha, Mm (as well as IKm.{, ^k*j) "six",
"sixty" (in East-Syriac also, JlSJ^Ajl "the sixth"; of. the forms for sixteen
§ 148 B) ; in the later pronunciation still oftuner, and even in other cases,
as perhaps in JLcpto kse from Icese "covered".

§ 21. The West-Syrians appear to have lost long ago the original Doubling.
doubling of a consonant; the Bast-Syrians seem generally to have re-
tained it: the former, for example, pronounce KSV "people", !&=>- 'amo,
the latter Jiyi> 'ammd. Nearly every consonant then is to be held as
doubled, which is preceded by a short vowel and followed by any vowel,
tnus^&JP "murdered", **■£*$ "takes" are pronounced (jttttel, nessav.

The absence of doubling may be relied on only when a softened
consonant continues soft, e. g, \t\ 'etlid "came", not 'oththd, for this
softening, or assibilation, is inadmissible in a doubled letter; while on
the contrary the hard sound in such a consonant after a vowel is a sure

— 14 — §22.

token of doubling, e, g. »a*aj naming "gone forth". How far the gutturals
:w and ot underwent a real doubling is a matter of question; but the
treatment of the vocalisation for the most part is the same as if such
doubling had occurred (cf. Hehr. 11D, into). The case is similar with i,
which also the East-Syrians at a pretty early date had already ceased to
double, but for which they occasionally at least turned a foregoing a into it.
In many cases the doubling has entered in a secondary way, as in
(oC^ alWici "G-od", »-ua;i eddahbah "I sacrifice".

B. The doubling at all events very early fell away, when merely a
sh e va followed the doubled consonant, e. g. in M^s* "desire", properly
reggethd, then regthd, and even very early through assimilation (§ 22)
reldha\ so (IjLa bezzethd "booty", beztlid, besthd. Thus JLjla-^J!oo "it is
touched", properly methgaMSM, was early pronounced like metliga-Ssd or
even methgaSd.

C. A very ancient dissolving of the doubling in the case of r, with
compensation in lengthening the vowel, appears to occur in l\kt^ 9^ r ^
"arrow" from garrd; fj'JLu here (herln &c.) "free", from Jiarre; JW* a
bergdthd "streets" from barrydthd. Thus perhaps also j-] (w5»oj££ &c.)
"with" from sadd.

D. Consonants written double were originally separated by a vowel,
though very short, e. g. Jivivifln (j>dpjuaKa sam&me, later samme; WX^
"waves" galule, later galle; ??f^ "wormwood" geddde, later gedde. By
a false analogy even fraaacuap <j>dp//.<x/ccc sammdne is accordingly often
written instead of )j^ax», and in fact Jvivim for the singular instead of
Jb&fiP sammd; and similarly in like cases. An actual exception to that
rule is furnished only by cases like yx*£olll or ja-LfloJL( etteslm "was set";
t**.Ut or p^M ette'ir "was awakened" &c. (§§ 36. 177 B).

In Greek words letters are sometimes written double, even when
such doubling does not occur in the original, e. g. ioon9>,Vs,9i ^lXiTTTrog
often instead of t£Doa.C^*s or *floaaa.^*a

§ 22. "When two consonants came together in the living speech,
and still more in the somewhat artificial recitation of the Bible in re-
ligious service, the first consonant was frequently modified by the second,
so that a media before a tenuis was turned into a tenuis, a tenuis before

§ 23. — 15 —

a media into a media, and so forth. I) was pronounced like J^co (e. g.
JUjo^j "vehemently angry" like Jji.ioa^j), for ) is a media and m a
tenuis like L (in spite of the assibilation) ; a; like aco («. g. JijJ "con-
oprers" like J-afiQJ; J^*4'? "°f Zaeharias" like JLifJuBDj) ; vice versa +ro like
yj (e. g. \\ct\M "disgrace" like f},U>). Farther J^^ was given like Ka
(e. g. IS^.-^?*! "greedy" like JSJL&oiJ), and even Kj>, with suppression of
the emphasis before the unemphatic I, like Ka (e, g, JJI^jaculx "sorrowful"
like jStvioisj.). The Bast-Syrians went much farther in this process, for
they prescribed e. g, '^^.i&\. even for j^k-M^v. "to break" ; ,6£^L JU i' 01 '
t&t-AU "they burn"; and" they gave to * immediately before =*, ^^, j, the
sound of the French j, ge (Pers. •'•), e. g. in jjjuto 6 "an account". This
subject might be treated at great length. Notice that such assimilations
take place even when the consonants affected were originally separated
by a slb e va (e). — The ivritten language exhibits only a few traces of
these changes. (*)

Mem. A very ancient reversed assimilation consists in Ko always
becoming ^o in Aramaic roots ( 3 ) at the beginning of the word, as the
emphatic ^ corresponds more accurately to * than does t. Similar
equalisations in all roots might farther be pointed out.

RUKKAKHA AND QuSSlYA. ^^

or aspirated) pronunciation and for Qus's'aya, i. e. the hard (or unaspir-
ated) pronunciation, originally affect all the letters a ^^; J>al \Be-
gliadhh&pkaih] in equal nieasrire. But the East-Syrians for a very long
time have nearly always given s a hard sound ; only in the end of a
syllable have they sometimes given it a soft pronunciation. ( 8 ) The

E. and Q. in
individual

(*) The proper name *St5 (Num. 25, 15) is written in Ceriahi's Pesh. *Mo*a,
where sb haB the sound of zb. In Aphr. Ill, 6, andEphr. Nib. 71 v. 65 (in one Codex)
it still stands uajqu,

( 2 ) lj\a "atone" would form an exception, but this word is probably of foreign
origin.

( 3 ) And in that case, apparently, they always make it quieaco into «. Even
the best Nestorian MSS. are, from these circumstances, of almost no value for an

— 16 — § 23.

following rules accordingly are not applicable to tlie East-Syrian
pronunciation of 3.

B. These letters are hard in the beginning of words, e. <j. ?&-=»
"house", Jftt^^camel", &c. (but notice § 24 and 25).

0. a^jasl experience R. — (i e. take the soft pronunciation)
after any vowel, however short, when they do not happen to be doubled.
Thus after a full vowel ^a.j»,v^-i», JAa*., Jla-jq-o, Ijk-oo, J^-p &c.

On the other hand these letters undergo Q. (i a. take the hard
form) when they are doubled: ^%£ &3]2)j °i^£P 0$P)> ^f^ 1 **' fr? 0,00 '
tCS,?t ;., l\\£p, &c, and even after long vowels ^*^f (raggin "they
desire"), lhJ> (bdtte "houses"), &c.

Farther they take Q. immediately after consonants : ^cuaab, JL^m&,
.cL^ajtl, &c. Diphthongs too have the effect of a consonantal ending,
thus {laso, JLkx-cp, <xk*£p, ^»f*&, &0.

Exceptions : y+\ "as", wliich is pronounced ahli.

Even the mere slfva mobile effects R. just as a vowel would:
^d^jD (qevol), l-^»- ^^vviy, &c. Thus is it also when one of the par-
ticles aV } o is prefixed: tf=»; but jikx (Uvdne); JfJL^s*' ^ut i?l^-=>. &c.
So too is it when several of these words or particles are prefixed, e. g.
JL&-*^: Jb&^a, J^s^af, Jb2>*^a£o; !&•*£>: fft^ibw^o, &c. Except upon
the first consonant, these prefixes however have no effect, thus, \.^Kh
kethdvd, U>ts-^ lakhtMva, originally lahhethcivd, not lalclitdvd <&c.

Regularly the sh e va mobile has a softening effect after a consonant
originally doubled, thus ^Aaf*v> (p^fla), JK-^J (Nnn), ik-"» malthethd
= manhethd), &c. So also, of course, when the consonant furnished
with sh e va mobile is preceded by another wliich is quite vowelless, as in

D. But many a slfva mobile fell away (sh e va mobile transmuted
into sh e va quiescens) at a time when the influence which it exercised
upon the softening process (RukMkhd) was still a living one, witli the
result that the influence of the hardening process (QttSSdyd) in turn ap-

enquiry into R. and Q. of p. Besides even good MSS. and prints contain errors
sometimes, as regards these 'points'.

§ 23. — 17 —

peared. On the other hand such falling away occasionally came about
at a time when the influence referred to was no longer in being, so that
Bukhdkhd remained effective even after the disappearance of x]i?va
mobile. Upon the whole K. has heeu abandoned more completely in the
case of the falling away of an e that bad originated from i (a), than in
that of an e from a: compare U*\J^" scabies" from yardvd, with JL^i-^
"scabiosus" from garivd. It makes no difference whether the foregoing
syllable, — now a closed one (ending in slfva qiiiescens), — has a long or a
short vowel; cf. (Ami, ^iks, !La^».a, and other derivatives from the
act. part. Pealf); !&!>.&£.«., otti-jjj "I awakened him", &c.

In the interior of words B,., when it comes after an earlier sh'va
mobile nnpreceded by two consonants without a full vowel or by a double
consonant, is now kept up only here and there, and that particularly in
the verb : cf. even cases like vf^Jj neldcin (nllddn) "they bring forth
children", from nelibdn. For the substantive, — cf. cases like «* V\y ,
contrasted with the Hebr. 'ote from malakhai (but v. § 93) and I nnNy ,
contrasted with n*5^0.

E. The usage in the case of Fern. !^ is specially fluctuating, for the I
here is often hard after a consonant, and often on the other hand soft. This
i has nearly always Q. [i. e. it is pronounced hard, as if with Day. lene]
after syllables which have a long vowel, particularly i or ft, e. <j. \\W^f ,
ikjujjp, fkjua, ilpi, (ktt.fc», ikal?, tliJU, llSjiJjai; ILtoas, lfc-=°>»,
!Ho|, !tCi*oj£a, &c. Exceptions: — }Lvi ■ &, ilSoa^f, l&A=>( ! ); |&.*ja£», and
some others. With a: {iuu£i, l&jala, UjA.ry, i^^-i, Ac; but IK»j,
i^joifO, (IS.xjuo, (k^-rj, i4auy, iJ^vi., !V"s-, ancl n. few others. Always
Q. (i. e. QldSdyd, or Day. lene) after u-I, e g. !&-£»»£, (LjJ. After
syllables with d, perhaps R. of I somewhat preponderates : itvaju, (i.^oa,
JksafJ, Jk.i»joip, JiLySia^, tLajpjj, !i;_^{, &o. ; yet W^>^», l& N ; ■ « : ,
(known, flLxLuL, and many others. With <" Q. has the preponderance:
Ikaka, IK^-^j, iKa^N I, and many others; yet iJxdi?, and so too, forms

(') Contrary to tho Hebrew D'ini, &c. A few excoptions, like *:^* 1 Cor.
9, 18, are cited.

( a ) Acoording to the beat traditions.

i

- 18 - §23.

like ii^iS;, ikxi^o (to which l^wfcf, !<:****- also belong). So IUi
"anger", and the like. With u and o we have iKoo^iA, IKVai^ap,
!L>a. # 4jt, &c, overagainst iLon «vi, JKaaiasJ. Individual peculiarities
are very complicated here, and the tradition occasionally varies. On the
whole Q. is preferred after r, I, and t, and K. after ', m &c, in the I of
the termination !l p. e. I in that feminine termination, is generally sounded
hard after r, I, and 5, and so/8, or with assibilation, after ' and m]. The
analogy of words of similar form or meaning has exercised great influence
here. Something will be said on this head afterwards in treating of the
parts of speech.

F. The quite peculiar Q. of IKm., <A* (along with IkiJ, ,A»i)
"six", "sixty" points to the loss of a sh e va in remote times [v. D].

G. Like Ikjml "auger" we also have — !Wjj, ^otkaajl "my, their
anger"; here farther, analogy in this way breaks through the old law,
that Q. must stand immediately after a consonant [v. 0]. Thus ^«?,
vjo^oij "my, their gold", following J^wj "gold" (from dahava), and
many others. Thus the I of the 3. sing. fern, in the Perf. (at least according
to the usual pronunciation) remains always soft: <wtO*IjQj> "she has lulled
him", .jikiklgjD "she has killed me" (as against oii.^- "I have lulled
him", Ac.). On the other hand the 1 of the 2. pers. in the Perf. is kept
hard in all circumstances, thus &A&o "thou hast killed" (and io! "thou"),
as well as Li^'thou hast revealed", JL^J'thou (f.) hast revealed";
^k-^i , ,.lLi^L "Ye (in. and f.) have revealed" &o.

In other respects too we find remarkable deviations from the funda-
mental rules, e. g. in ^i^i>| (§ 149) "they four (f.)" or "the four of
them", where k. might have been expected. Although the fundamental
rules are still clear, they became practically ineffective even at an early
stage; and thus it came about that entirely similar cases often received
dissimilar treatment. Besides, fluctuations of all kinds in, the dialects
and in the school-tradition, manifest themselves in the matter of E.andQ.( ).

(') Even tie best MSS. are not entirely free from error in their use of these
points.— And in one or two cases, a distinction, founded upon K. and Q., has been
established between words consisting of the same letters,— just through arbitrary pre-

§§24.25. — 19 __

H. Original doubling in the termination preserves Q. in >=>* (like
JaS) "great", 01^ "a pit", .©^(Ja^from JaJ^J "side", jot "place";
so too *J| at — att from ant "thou" ; so also ...Vv, leb "my heart" (like
>;%. IMS), ^'fS^yad "my good fortune" (like fc^) and the like. On
the other hand we have k.$. "six" (its doubling early disappeared), •aii
"side" (also uai^ "my side") and verbal forms like a.* "lowered",
^j "longed for" (and also in the plural a^J fas.).

I. Secondary doubling, which causes Q., we find regularly in the
1" sing. Impf. when the first radical has a vowel, as in *o;j "1 tread",
•?f5i "I tel1 lies", y^i^l "I bless thee", J^j^J "I hunt", fas. Farther
in the Aphel in some verbs middle o: ^i] "made ready", "^ii "mea-
sured", as contrasted with a-ij "gave back", fas. (§ 3 77 D).

J. Words, which are otherwise like-sounding, are often distinguished
through R. and Q., as k-^^ "thou hast revealed", and ^..^^"f have
revealed"; ik^o qeUhd from qeSSeOia (f. of Hebr. E*]5) "stubble", and
(k.*o (n^jjj "a bow", &e.

§ 24. R. appears in the beginning of a word, when tliis word is ». m o.

1 iiBuociaiuil

'i{l i*, John 16, 8; ool JUo, John 16, 16; c*a Jilo ua JiJ, John 10, 38 '
(Bernstein) &c. The slightest pause, however, interrupts the softening.
Similarly, two closely-associated words, of which the first ends in the same
consonant as that with which the second begins, or a consonant like it,
arc so pronounced together that a doubling appeal's, which is indicated
by the Q. of both of them : Jbaja a.mjp mtmcM)UX>pe (instead of ■-; ™~
Ma) "playing the hypocrite"; Jbfi,la ivaaJ "hypocrite"; ltd-; La
"ink-bottle".

§ 25. According to the prescriptions of the Schools, Greek words are omk
not to be subjected to the rides for softening and hardening. Thus JL&ojvi; "°" 1 *'
cUirarsomi (ap&xmov); uan a .N. a ^> "fvom Philippos", fas. (where i is

soription on the part of the Schools. Thus against all rule«, they would have us say'
*•*»,)( "! dy°", but «-Vjl "I dip into"; farther v f*J "shut", but ^.p,J "hold", although
these words are identical. The distinction, besides, between IJboalo "resurrection"
and IKjoia "share" was hardly known to the living speech. In addition to these
examples there is a medley of caseB resting upon the caprice of the .Schools.

_ 20 - fu-

tile Greek n, § IS), o is made the equivalent of the Greek p, J that of
0, L of #, vo of x, ■a'oi <j>\ S^ generally that of /. Tims for instance

A^~ Xka/ui;, JLJoil. #sa>p/a, qc n . Vt . m a BaaiXeiog, IJ^-^S^Pirr^,

ypa/XMariKri, &a. % lias to be dai, e. ff. JL|amiJ s|op/«; yet J»J appears
frequently, e. #. Bast-Syrian JUaa£ raf'S (West-Syrian V*"4))- Ge-
nerally speaking we find here too,— especially in words early introduced,

—transformations, of a genuine Syrian type, e. g. J&-i»5 oyyjlMi, ijkaj
(f>9-opd, pxu ov/j.prikfi, &c.

Other foreign words too, in individual cases, vary from the rales,

as regards E. and Q., e. J. Ji^k? " word " (Persian), where one would

expect a hard ^.

DENTALS AND SIBILANTS.
j..i.i,.«d § 36. A. The 1 of the Eeflexive changes place, according to a

S "" 1 ""'' common Semitic fashion, with the sibilant immediately following it (as
first radical), and? is altered into ^ with j, and into ? with ), thus v4kJ»!
(fori4a>tj) "was thought", from ^jj» "thought"; uaU( "was taken
prisoner", from ILm.; ej^iji "was crucified", from «a^j; ^4l{ "was
justified" from ojj.

B. This I is assimilated to a following ^ and 1, becoming hard in
the process; >»%i.[ (pronounce ettaMS) "was concealed"; (.?lM (written
also tai-ii, W^U-5 ettabbar "was broken in pieces"; so too, before a }
furnished with a full vowel, e. g. f,$H neddahhralch "remembers thee".
A ? without a full vowel, on the other hand, here falls away in pronun-
ciation, after the I that has likewise become hard : v£ft{ ettelchar "re-
membered'^ 1 ). A like assimilation takes place, when an initial J or J. with-
out a full vowel is pressed by a foregoing prefix upon a following t, t
or ^. The ( or I is then written hard ; Jbpjjj "and who is like", ^Ojnff^
"to persons or things, however small""; joijlj "and thou dost skip" ;
Jlfo "and who abides" ; ootio "and repentest", Lj^ig "and hidest":
and the pronunciation must have been waddame, wattus, &c.

(>) Thus there are found in MSS. sometimes, forms like b*lkj for Ui&-{ "i»
pushed" and even llubUx for IUfM&J«, ILoii/jlio. "capability of being judged".

§ 27. — 21 —

An ^ or j falls away before the I of a suffix in oases like JlL^i*.
'abiitS, (or 'abbiUaf; "West-Syr. doubtless 'aim) "thick (£)"; ii^-is
"simple (£)"; *o4^AA "ye despised" ; i-$i- "thou didst curse", ^SiA^jJ
"gavest Mm power" ; tlji. "Church" ; Jij-po "net" ; iLjiv. "work" ; <;ijij
"y e (fO perished" ; ^ jl^aa "I commanded yon" ; l t -jv "didst", and many
others. In just the same way a pair of i 's coalesce, in words like UaVai
avhet for avlietht "madest ashamed"; ^Hotai "madest us ashamed" to.
The marking with R. and Q. varies ; in effect, in all these cases only hard
I remains. For (Utu he&atta "nova", one writes lff*> straight away, and
tlo^u "bride" for {1Lo£a>.

Radical j falls away before I m it»i, (£»-0, JloL^u: pronounce
hatha &c, "novus" &c.

C. A final I has early dropped off in the absolute state of
Feminines: a coming from afll, u from nth, i from UJi, e.g. JLa.^ "bona";
oa^ "bonitas" ; — f olj "confession" ; in their construct state the JL re-
mains : ka.^, ^^a^, K*% ol ; and so also in the singular case of K*!"^
"a certain (f.)", and in many adverbs (§ 155).

D. Unusual is the assimilation found in Ja^"wing" from gebpa,
as also the falling out in Jjot "this" from haoond, and in other pronouns
(§§ 67 Bern. 1; 68 Bern. 2).

LABIALS.

§ 27. Kaj and ka are sometimes interchangeable. Thus (ka/ Xmbiais.
frequently occurs for l^.»J "pitch" ; and occasionally on the other hand
e. g. ))Ksa_£ is found for Jilkaa^ "happy", and tiiaovv. for !&.ao£i*
"Friday". The East-Syrians havo, from remote times, pronounced o quite
like o (w, u) ; av accordingly becomes au, and iiv, n, c. g. JLu.ao.jk Mha.
They also pronounce i» like o, in cases where they leave it unusually soft
and do not turn it into p (§ 23 A). Generally this transition is found in
^a>o$ "magni", JEaVo!& "magnates"; <a|oi "made great", for pyiSl, ^5"i5l,
aiyn (§ 146). Compare Uviti; "an ant" from |ivi«yi« (§ 31).

- 22 — §§ 28—30.

,. LIQUIDS.

§ 28. iV, as first radical, is almost always assimilated to (lie <■<>>>-
sonant immediately following it: ooSj "brought ■out", from «■«;<«/; J>o^
"goes out", from nmpoq; kisp. "brings down", from tiunilii'lli; «aoj{,
"plantest", from tensov, &c. Exception is made when « follows: joAxf
"roars"; SSmj "grows clear"; *&**> "lights", Ac. (yet >4j "tlitrots" I'roni
neiihca), and in other very rare cases (§ 173 A).

As second radical, n is assimilated in somo nouns: JAi- "necklace,";
(Li. "oppression"; J&l "face"; Jli^ "side"; jisj "occasion"; Itjf.
"foundation", from 'enqa &c.,— as against JLiio "oongrogatioii"; JaJo?,
lLiJo> "tail", which originally must have had a short vowed after
the n, &c. The is that falls away is still written in >=J^, "side", mid
likii (pronounce atta § 26) "woman", construct state LijJ|; so in kJJ,
f. -kij "thou", pi. ,okiJ„ f. <;kil.

Farther, n loses its sound in many cases before II of the feminine
ending : IkA-Ss, gef^US from gefenta "vine" ; l^^-j^, "cheese" ; I&A^-
"brick"; ik^. "a field-measure" ; |(!L, l(l(') "fig"; and witlui still written,
in |li.po "town"; ikr.ftm "ship"; |ki=J "a time"; |kx* "year"; and in
tkioaft "incense", the n of which is still pronounced by others.

In l-^i^gabtara "hero", the nasal which servos as compensation
for the doubling has been stroked out later.

On the dropping off of the n in the Imperative v. § 17] 0, and in
certain substantives, § 105.

§ 29. L falls away when next to another I, in j jSviy mwmlii
"speech", written also in fact )l viv> ; and in JJjS^o matid "covering".
Thus most Syrians say )l Vio n qovla "countenance" (others qoveUL),

It farther falls away in many forms which come from ^.JJ "to go"
(v. § 183), as also in forms from .rfsra (v. same section).

§ 30. E falls outinl^a "daughter", construct state — (but not in
the emphatic state fiv»).

(*) Thus, with hard 1 according to the best tradition. Probably the sing, of
JLai* "corals" was pronounced as l^«* (Talmudic Krv-D3).

§§ 31—33. - 23 —

§ 31. ■ AVe have unusual abbreviations in several nouns which are nnununi

"wheel"; I|j-^^ "throat" from f/arf/artil; Jiao, jX-a.ua "plough" from
ipnqencl] Jl& *-ojl (*) "an ant", probably from ]isa*sa*-, and one or two
others.

§ 31 b . ;/• beginning a wort! becomes /■ in several foreign words, like nbaoomian

lin foroign

Jboa^, along with JUoqj, from voufAjUog, mmvmus\ JL^oix with. J^aj, from woniH.
the Persian na-mat "carpet".

GUTTURALS. Guttural.

§ 32. I for tlie most part loses in - Syrian its consonantal souml. iMiing
As an initial sound, it falls away along with its vowel in many words to j njtia i /_
which it belongs: v«j! or -ju, jJJl, ^*j!, ^-i-J "man", "men", &c; ^U->1 or
^j-u, li^ju?, &c, "another"; JL^ju? or JU^» "last", o)&-.^uI "bis last", &c;
JL£.ut "related"; Jj( or JS in certain cases for Ji£ "I". Even in writing, this
{ is without exception wanting in ll^X* "end"; *J>, (£x> "one" (in. and f.);
?&.j!» "sister"; &..& "pocket" (bag), and "bearing beam" (rafter) (v. 1J1K);
({,, oL, &c. "come"; ^J, ^*^J, &o. "go"; (Jo, |J;o "goose", from mi«;
^; (properly "there") =■ |*ig.

§ 33. A. As a medial, I disappears completely according to the Treatment
usual pronunciation, when it immediately follows a consonant or a mere ° mo a ■
xh e va; and the vowel of the I is transferred to the preceding consonant. Thus
(a) •=>!$■*> matcv "makes good" for utat'ev; "VJLai "demands" for ncPal;
l%cp "hater"; ^h^% "unclean" f. (oonstr. st.) &C. (b) *»J^ "was good" lev
for t$&o\ JJ-J1*- Eld "demanded" (part.); Jj^ "beautiful"; JL|a "beautiful"
(pl.);ltJLS "blaming", &e. So too after prefixes: J&?£ "of the father",
from J^J + ?; JS.»oJj "to the artificer" lummaiia; ^^(o "and ate"; ?£-Jka
"in what? (f.)" &e. In writing, such an ( is always left out in a*a "bad",
from #*£}, in *«£>.», ^Vi "teaches", "teachest", tfec. for *]j>N&, &c;
farther, generally in the compound <^\ for A &l "although".

(*) This vocalisation with an is mucli bottcr supported than that with 1c

— 24 — §§ 34. 35.

Although this falling away of the { is very ancient, yet the Bast-
Syrians frequently retain it as a consonant in such cases: thus e. g, they
prefer to punctuate ^jU-J, Jlja, without pushing forward the vowel to
the preceding consonant, as if it should still be read neS'al, MYdlta; but
all this without consistency.

B. Between two vowels ( receives with many Syrians (always?) the
pronunciation y, e. g. Jj{ agar "air" (West-Syr.). This pronunciation,
which occasionally finds expression even in writing, e. g. JLj for lj£ "de-
filed" (§ 172 A B), has however not been general.

In the end of a syllable I always loses its consonantal value : &-V^
"I demanded", is in sound the same as &^*.; ^.o-oJj "eats" = ^ajj-j;
e4lq> "are growing old" = ^.^m, &c. Etymology alone can decide
here, as in many other cases, whether I is a mere vowel-letter or an
original guttural (Arabic Hemza). Such an I is now no longer mitten
in cases like w^£p from saggf (cf. [U^ro, ^Jl*^o>, &c.) "much". On
the changes of vowels at the disappearance of such an J v. § 53.
Auxiliary § 34. An I, which in the beginning of the syllable ought to receive

oflhe I a vocal sh e va, — according to the analogy of other consonants, — retains
a full vowel instead; but in the middle of a word it gives up this vowel
to the foregoing consonant (by § 33 A) and loses its own consonantal
value. The vowel is — or — , and the latter even in many cases where
it was originally a. Thus i^p[ "spoke", compared with ^^a "lulled"
3. s. (originally amar, qatal); +*&{ "spoken", compared with ^*^jo
"killed" (from qatil); ^o-oj "eat", like ^o^jd "kill", — ^i{^» "is
being eaten" (like ^^ofcefc "is being killed"); jCalba "angel" = KJfe^Jj;
JLiaJLaap "afflicted" macheve (East-Syrian jaJLaab) &c. The Nestorians
occasionally write in these cases ~ (§17) e. g. ^^oIJ^m, which is even
improperly used for regular vowels, as in 6*-kfipi^ = 6pu»(K^. (§ 45)
"her foundations". An o (perhaps lengthened?) has been thus maintained
in ttijjol (Plural of Jiiof "manger") from oraivathd. Such an ( with a
sh 6 va disappears without leaving a trace in ^ootJL^o-co, ^och^clco "their
multitude" from fJU^ao for soy'd.
o*tbo- § 35, Seeing that a radical I frequently thus falls away in pro-

grupliiu

Nota on (. mmciation, it is often left out also in writing, and that even in the oldest

§§ 36—38. — 25 —

manuscripts, e.g. |&Xa&» for (kXa.;»l» "food"; ^a&j for ^.a_o|i

"eats"; |Ka for Jtjla "face". On the other hand I, even when a mani-
festly superfluous letter, is yet placed in words where it should not have
appeared at all, — as in, oJLm*> for cxmy "to take"; v cl^?1 for ^Ql^-t
"ye enter"; JaJLA for JLa.^ 71 "report"; ^*b*JLo for ^&^& "stand" (pi.);
JLfotoJL for Ji&ot "delay"; Jjoofj, J»(oo» and even U°°h for JLiooj or
(West-S.) JGooj "pity", &c. ; or- it stands in the wrong place, like lla*>JL£
for {iojb^ "uncleanness" ; JJoJU. for J|[ojl "iiuestion"; jLM for JLjtfL
"demanded" (part.) &c. ; or it is doubled instead of being written once,
as in IJLolJ for JLJLi "comforts", and the like. The superfluous I is a
good deal in favour in certain causative forms, particularly in short
ones, e. g. J»wJL» = JUlio "gives life"; iotjj "injures".

§ 36. In certain cases a vowel-less I, followed by an I , blends with ft becom
that letter into a hard t doubled and generally written tt (pointed It,
tt, it, LI, which all express the same sound, § 26) : in older days it was
often signified by a single t, Thus, regularly, in the reflexive of Aphel
^g-filH, ^gustLj, for etlCaqtal; ja^jstlj "was established" (j&*a1{) v.
§ 177 D &c. Thus, besides, in r~£tU "was held" (t-^»L|) for eth'eheo, and
occasionally in similar forms (§ 174 C). A single L is almost always,
written for tt, if another L precedes by way of prefix, e.g. y^^oXt, r&H>
instead of jo-uattt, t->-ttt.

§ 37. Even before the orthography was elaborated, a ^ followed ■»■■
by another i* in the same root became ? (J^N "rib", from J>V> ; \.*±.\
"doubled", from JA^., and many others) ( l ) : In like manner, with the
West-Syrians, a i. coming immediately before o» becomes I and is treated
like it in every respect. Thus ?o^ "remembered", — pronounce }&i{,
from ;o^.; jjjjotaiL "recollection", — pronounce )j»oio{ ; }3^Jk& metheheft
for jS^J^ap, &c. This change, which becomes noticeable oven in the
fourth century, and is occasionally indicated also in writing (^iotf, t-®l{
for eio*Vf W^j- "to be in heat"), has however remained unknown to the
East-Syrians.

§ 38. o) y which as an initial letter had, ovon in ancient times, often •».

0) Of. l±u "mentha" ['mint'] from Kptf).

— 26 — §§ 39. 40.

passed into I (e. g. in v oj( secondary form of ,aJot "they", and in the Aphel
^§»°J from liaqtcl, &,(;.), falls away in pronunciation in many forma of
the suffix of the 3 rd sing, masc, c. g. w»5t'oj^ap malkau from mallitnihi,
"Iris Icings"; —5^.1^ "built it" (in.); woto .\,^ n i "kills liiin". The personal
pronoun — oot "lie" or wot "who" — loses the ot, when it is enclitic, o. //.
oo»' s ^^d getaln\ odt oC^ or o©£w lelm\ <-»ot J1& manai from maim In;
oot J£» from ma-im lift,. In fact oi&, qjoj, o_a.*| are often written for
oot Jtib, Ooi Jjot, oot JLa-J. St) always o^. "not", from ooj JU. From oot oot,
— ot wot come oioot, **iot: but — ot w©t is occasionally written oven yet,
though we do not so often meet with oot oot.

The ot of (oot "fuit", falls away when employed as an enclitic;:
foot^ja, ©oot ^Aj£ (§ 299), &c.

The ot of the very common verb oo** "to give" falls away in the
Perfect in all cases where it had a vowel; thus >aoVj, k^®*^ v?^.^®^
oj^-abt-, &c. The East-Syrians suppress the ot even in cases like
£j.=»o»-», &c, and similarlyin lkiov*lj_, fi^-o^o, &c.

For (jooV "Judah", JufooV "a Jew", &c. (from K^tfty fcOIJirP., Sue.)
one may say also f;oo*£, JLjootf Yi&a, Yitbaya. JLVa*&c. are written even
without ot.

§ 39. In Greek words ot? is often written to express the aspirated
p, c. (j. Jboocx* 'Pw/^, JLasot*^, JLmot^a (along with JLixui^s, JLfo^HJLa
and other forms of transcription) <7raftpye/a, &c'. This ot has no con-
sonantal value, and only in mistake is it treated occasionally as a true
consonant.

THE VOWEL -LETTERS o AND w.
§ 40. A. ^beginning a root becomes y in Syriac, as in Hebrew,
when it is not protected by certain prefixes. Root "YVLD thus yields
Jp- "child"; JLp^ "she bare"; but f^o\ "he begat" ; ip^o^ "birth", &o.
The initial w is however kept in g, o "and"; |Jo "it is becoming" (and so
JLLXo f.; k*JLi\.o "decently" &c.); l$±~o "an appointment" (and thus
^o "to appoint", f^olj "to agree upon"); ff.£o "vein"; add the inter-
jection — o "woe!", whence J^o "the woe"; so too ftoio "bee-eater", and
Jl£o "a krrid of partridge", which two words evidently are meant to re-

§ 40. — 27 —

produce the natural calls of these birds. Other -words beginning with o
like tyio "rose" are foreign or uncertain.

B.. o and — have both of them too much of the nature of vowels
to lie able to stand as true consonants in the end of a syllable; they
always form in that case simple vowels or diphthongs, thus: JLjoqJl
"promise" (with — fa*. Saudi "rn-omised") sudaya, not hwddifd, for it
was ireijuently even written with just one of 1 ); oi^,. lau "not", not lav (from
la-u, lahil § 38); ofcc (East-Syrian opo) "called" <prau\ o-^L "revealed"
(3 pi.) galllu (not gcdllv)( 2 ); lts*& "house" l>cut(i\ <j&Js "rise" qtmnln\
(lS-o^6? "Edessena" Orhditd, &c.

0. — without a full vowel always becomes I in the beginning of the
syllable. In the beginning of a word —J is often written for it; thus
oJ^J, *»JS-( Itliev "sat", from iJpH; vs^p, n&^J wa* "knew", from S>"p. ; (i^p,
(Wf-f "knowledge" ; u^, w^t "month" (emphatic state JL&u) ; farther,
oK*5 or aL|o, ffcvXj-*? or IK^t-f; &c. In later times the I is not so
often written in such cases as it was in earlier days. But still the I is
always found in J^A-| "honour", l£-| "hand", Jbia&J "day", and thus in
i£-J&, JbojcuJU &c. On JLjoo^ along with J^joo^, and obV instead of
ootJ v. § 38.

So too, within the word, ooV^J "is given", from ^tyy, v 6ow-l»
"their breast", from jmyjQ (J-t-w) ; (k^ -* "cap", from KJ^tpD; ^6o**i.o^L*,
"their commotion", from JLU.o~^l, &c.

In a closed syllable ye or yi becomes 7 in K.J "exists", and in the
foreign names %^*U or \^»: "Israel"; ^v.>in«,j "Ismael" (both
with orthographic variants); > \*^}Ll (for ^KJ?^^; and ,rn\mj. Quito
exceptionally, other forms are found, v. § 175 A, Hem,

For ^o.*- ".lesus" the Nostorians say ^ojl* IW.

(*) Vice versa., — because «u was pronounced like a*, the words pronmmced
Sukono, §udolo were in later times written jbou, Jljoo*, where the doubled o had
no etymological foundation, since these words in their fundamental form are Sukhand,
htddala, and belong to Salcken "presented", and Saddet "enticed".

( a ) The barbarous custom of pronouncing i in the end of a syllable like a
German w or indeed an f, instead of giving it a vowel sound (e. g, i^as aplu, l^a
meldkhau), should be given up in Hebrew too.

— 28 — § 40.

D. In the middle of the word, ya heoomes I in the adverbial ending
aith, from and along with ayath .(§ 155 A), o, which appears as an initial
letter without a full vowel only in o "and" (A supra), is sometimes
treated within a word just like w. Thus from remote times there appear
as alternative forms !ia-uE> hahoetha and llali hayitiha "animal"; !i<v^
and Jio^i "joy" (§§ 40 D; 101; 145 ?)('): forms with « in these cases
have become more usual; while other forms, — for instance, itojl along
with (lo]l (N)J!t6) "weariness", ^cujoii; (Bast-Syrian) along with ^o.&ovj;
"that they may have room" — occur only in isolated cases.

E. A — after a, and before another vowel, is pronounced by the Bast-
Syrians like I, thus JLjS "lives", U*fyJ{ "at last", like hae, lieraath, &c.( a )
(thus the converse of § 33 B). Perhaps old modes of writing, like ^.b-uo*
for ^lil/iot "spiritual"(pl.), are founded upon this. If the vowel succeeding
w, after a or a, is e or i, then the difference between the highly vocal y
and \ is hardly perceptible. "Whence come the interchangeable forms
t>*^ and k-)l*> "dead"; ■«■:;» "remaining" and Julia (§ 118); i. i i) 'A «j
and i ■ iTri ■ i "give me to drink" (§ 196) &c: Thus oldMSS. have k— v.vj»,
for Mvj* "truly" (§ 155 A).

R In the same way awn and a'u are scarcely distinguishable by
the ear. Accordingly we find, for example, ^ooao* or even ^ojboi for
vpjboi "they threw" (§ 176 E), wotoo.K M or woiootuao for wSioJLu^o "they
struck him" (§ 192), &c. Similarly, !ooA*> as well as Ua2x*> "matter".

G. *-. serves in rare cases as a mark of a vowel and a consonant
at one and the same time; e. g. in JUSj nevlyd "prophet" (in which the
conclusion must have a sound differing very little indeed from that in
JJL.LJ "come", &c); l^oii Byuthd "form"; and in the before-mentioned
i.iTrWj alqaym. Similarly ^Voo for ^»ojs quryayin "rustici" (to avoid
the triple — ).

H. The Greek la, tin, &c. are sometimes treated as monosyllables,
sometimes as dissyllables, for instance: J^o-joi Ihitiynj;; ) ■ ' i rn i t %stla,

(') With the old poets these words are sometimes dissyllabic, BometimeB tris-
syllabio. The Nestorians prefer the dissyllabic pronunciation of (1**-* at least.
( 2 ) Accordingly they like to put a small ( over such a -.

§§ 41— 43. — 29 —

<o-J3Ps> Map/ato, together with ^n.njvi; JLa-^-; haiyjKri (along with
JLaJ^jf) ; ^aJa^^s Trpairdpw (and ^jo^^s) &c.

8 41. In Semitic inflection a appears instead of a theoretical aya, ° and -

3 as reprei-

or cum, e.g. gom(o) "stood", like qatal(a) "killed"; galat (Syriac gildtli) « n tin B the
"she revealed", like qatalat: I instead of avn, e. g. gim "stood (part.)" r ° ai °°J.
for qpamm, &c.

But in these cases the question turns very little indeed upon actual
sound-transitions. Of quite predominant importance here, are those an-
cient analogical modes of formation, which mount up to a time long be-
fore the separation of the several individual Semitic tongues.

2. VOWELS. s.Yow.11.

LONG AND SHOBT VO"WBLS IN OPEN AND CLOSED SYLLABLES.

§ 42. Long vowels in open syllables remain unshortened. Syriac mm
however has closed syllables with long vowels, even in the middle of the
word, e. g. ^olSocuo "ye stood" (2. m. pi.), <6kvwiv[ "ye raised", and later
formations like ft>~3...£=» (first from ierlkhetha) "benedicta" , <»%k^ "sit"
(part.), wtjj^jj "I awoke him", &c. The East-Syrians have a marked
inclination to shorten long vowels in closed syllables, and accordingly
they often write straight away ^;w\Si "eternities", for ^ v i Vv , ^^ki., &c,
and so too in the final syllables of lU for 1'U "she came", (\UJ, &c. On
the other hand they incline to lengthen short vowels in an open syllable,
if these are exceptionally retained, and thus, e.g., regularly write exkJjoi!
"she threw it (m.)" for ot&.-aoij.

Rem. — As they have ceased to notice that the — , which they
perhaps write in ^-^>Ks but pronounce short, is a long vowel, they
set down now and then — for short a, e. g. <j«'v» for ^ . aVin , ^SNy
"they teach" (part.).

8 43. A. Short vowels in closed syllables remain ; but in open stab

VOWOlB.

syllables short vowels have, in Aramaic, at a very early stage passed
mostly into sh'va mobile. This occurrence is precisely what has given the
language its characteristic stamp. Thus, for instance, ^$-o 2 e °^ ^' om i a t a ^
"killed"; oiij from dahav (cf. jA°l$) "gold"; ^ . nVwy from mamlihlnn

— 30 — § 43.

"are kings" (sing. J^.sa»), &c. ■ Then in Syriac even the- sh e va mobile
lias often quite disappeared, as we are able in part to establish, even for
very early times, through the relations of liukkakha anil QuSsaya, (§ 23 D) :
compare also the treatment of originally doubled consonants {§ 21 B).

B. A sharpened syllable does not count for an open one, even
when the double- consonant is itself simplified (§ 21 A, B). Thus the
short vowel remains, with resulting hardness, in u^| (ralbl, West- Syrian
rain) "brought up"; ?&>*?! "interest"; ysJjjxt {maWiein) "heats"; J|^ojd
(quttCild) "murder"; and so even'VJLy, "asked"; JKo.*. "question" (tor
theoretical $a"el, §u"ala). Here and there the falling away of the doubling
in the pronunciation is to be made up for by lengthening the vowel.

G. But still in certain cases a short vowel holds its ground even
in an open syllable: thus with I as the initial letter of a syllable (§ 34),
e. g. JLoJho for fcOfc^l? "angel"; in the secondary forms J&cuaj, Jcujbij for
joolqj, tt*aj "stands", "sets" (§ 177 0); in many later forms like ^o£^jo,
^JgJ> (§ 158 D); and in the forms of the Imperative with Object-
suffixes like w-i-^a; "lead me" (§ 190), &c. So also is it in forms like
ot&*XL"ske revealed it" (§ 152), a recent formation from o»— + J^A^L.
The Nestorians (always?) lengthen the a, in such cases (§ 42).

D. "Where there had been two open syllables with short vowels,
one of these had of course to remain; thus J^ot; from dahavti "gold";
l^of from dakhara "a male"; &^-p from qatalath "she killed", &c.

E. So too, when the prefixes => ^ » o come before a vowel-loss
consonant, their vowel remains as an a(*), thus y^*=* from sj^» + =»
"in a king"; jJx^l^ "to a man"; > ^j^j "who killed"; q.ojo "and took".
With the words mentioned in §51, which may assume an J as their
commencement, the prefix o is given as a, and so with the other prefixes,
thus {{$-*? "in the written bond" ; Ifyfy- "to the six", &c.

Thus too, a appears in the corresponding ease, when several such
prefixes come together at the beginning of a word: JL£^o;o "et regis",

( l ) With « and V, a is the original vowel; perhaps =» has just been adapted
thereto by analogy, though originally it appeara to have been bi\ and certainly
analogy explains the treatment of j, which is shortened from cU.

§44. — 31 —

from JL&Sao + ? + o; JiAjoafXo "and to him that is involved in murder",
from Jl^p + 3 + j+V + o; ^^o£ao from ^§*o + ? + a + o, &c. (but
of course JIAja^jLX, ^g^ofa, &c.).

If the second consonant of such a word is an (, then the prefix
usually takes the vowel: fj&o "and a hundred" wama from immCd =
«K» + V, — (J? "who wearied" dcdi from daVl; \U$lo "and put on thy
shoes" wasan from was 7 an, &c. And yet, along with these are also
found, through ignoring the I, forms like *^wJu«.o "and demanded" weM
= ive + S'el (along with ^JL£.o) ; thus, in particular, we most frequently
have JLasJboo, Jbojio, aimJ^aX, and other forms from, ujsbj "to heal".

"When two such prefixes stand before initial {, the I is generally
neglected, e.g. |i-Jb>° "and in whom or what?", from JLi + » + o; y*»|Jo
"and to thy mother" ; ^fiffX "to him who remembered us"; (o^jjo
"et Deo", &c. — More rarely with — : **iboi({Lij. "to him who neglected",
from i*&©tj! + » +*V; JLl»joJ&; "he who is on the •way", &t. The same
fluctuation is found with w|, w, from ye : It-J&J "who or what is in hand" ;
^a^.*&;Ji»o, withwaioEiJ4!, ^o.*^; (East-Syrian § 40 C) ; ofJ^£*£j, &c,
Rem. The old poets express themselves in all these cases either
with or without the a according to the requirement of the verse.

An — , originating according to § 40 C, yields with such a prefix the
forms **X, u£, <fcc, e. g. >\£*o or ^$*{o "and knew", from >^p, >fc£*|
(— 1>T.) + o-

Hem. The Nestoriaus oddly give the vowel a to the prefixes before
i;oo^*, JLjoot-., &c, "dudah, Jew", thus JL'}Oo»^. , ;oo^-.a, (jootJo, &c.

SOME OF THE MOST IMPOETANT VOWEL- CHANGES. Someofti

itioet ira-

§ 44. The a is retained with the East-Syrians, hut lias become 5 v°wei-
with the "West-Syrians. The former also set down — for the most part •?■"»■•■•
to represent the Greek «, particularly in an open syllable, — for which the
"West-Syrians prefer to keep — .

Before n the transition from & to o is partly found even earlier;
thus, in the sporadically occurring v o^oX, Jjoaol, (jo*ima> ILjom^s, &c,
for ^iJ, "there", Juot "eight", J frforiS-^ "spices", {IS. ■ i np ft p "tnetwjrmna" ; in

— 32 — §§ 45. 46.

tsol = tS( a "also" (*) ; still more usual are Jjo.mi "temptation" (from
)'» •' " \' though somewhat different in signification ["test or trial" 2 Cor. 2. 9]) ;
JSo-^s^as well as (iLli^ "revelation"; |ioi>'^. "vegetahles" &e. (§ 74).

'•• § 45. a has frequently become e, e. g. &>-£-£ "she killed", from

qatalatli, (cf. of^o "he killed him"); Ifrma "flesh", from basarti, &a.
Here and there the vocalisation fluctuates between a and e: the East-
Syrians especially give preference, upon occasion, to the former; e. g. in
j-j^ «tof for j^[ "afflicted" (§ 174 A) ; ikttjk*. for 4-W^* "foun-
dation" ; lp>-3 for i^3 "cavern" ; J^oti for l^oij "course, run" ; and in
several others that have a guttural for the middle letter.

A 3, immediately followed by another consonant, sometimes occasions
e instead of a: ujAa.|, wuik*& instead of alkali, maihah "find" (§ 164);
lk-k*& "texture", contrasted with ii-;yo "course" ; iloL»*> "feast" (but
J?k*** the same) overagainst ILo^^o "chastisement" ;- IK-o^-l "bed",
uS»a3a*4 "service", contrasted with iK^xa^L "covering", (Ka^at "petition"
(but !V%*i "narration") ( s ) : notice farther!^, -i^«.j, i^-»{ (§ 51).
Similarly s in i&ma "behind", from jJEs^o + a, where according to other
analogies ha was to be expected.

i. § 46. "Within the word an e has sometimes been produced through

the quiescing of a consonantal I, as in JjJUa "well"; JUL* or JU.* "head";
PoJj "says" (§ 53) : and sometimes it has been produced in other ways,
as in J^JL? "stone", JU-?, ^.JLo, or ,<j>, "right, just" (§ 98 G). In an open
syllable e is, without regard for etymology, expressed freely by !, or
even not expressed at all (and in the same way the Greek at and e are
dealt with: thus even JtapjJLs qersd — Kccipo;), while in a closed syllable
*- (or even w|) is set down by preference: In later times w is more
prevalent; e.g. the old form JL*.Jaj, becomes later )«.°u nefeSa "refresh-
ment, recovery"; and Jufc^v. Xi/jha "harbour" takes later the form
, Sec.

(*) J-n»*** "Persians" iB probably an intentional defacement of the otber and
still more usual form t**p*a: The bostile nation was denoted by a word which
means "pudenda".

( a ) Jia*A "a pledge" is a borrowed word from the Assyrian, and accordingly
does not belong to this class.

§§ 47. 48. _ 33 -

This e became to a large extent I with the West-Syrians: They
said jjpji nimar "says", JJjjuf herino "alms", JUL> rlsTi, JLsJj, B/S, ^JL ?
Jan, Ac. Yet they keep the — in ^ia)i "eats", (ki.dijUb "food"',
!|M !a> "aiTow", &c.; and there are found still in isolated cases JUJaj as
well as (i)ai, J&1*> as well as JUS.J*. (Inf.) "to swear", ^{l, as well as
xpfc^i "are lost" (2. m. pi.), &o. (§§ 174 A, 175 B). V 1|— or the
defective form of writing i,~ are (even apart from etymology) in these cases
almost invariably certain marks of an original B. Tito stylo of writing
of the East-Syrians separates — a with tolerable consistency from w if).
In the end of a word the West-Syrian transition from c to «, ex-
cept in Jj (=. Hebr. to) appears only in Greek words in yj, e. y. JLaA.5
or even *£-i-j oiaOfay for JUi^K:, of the East-Syrians. Otherwise -i-
reinains here: (^"reveals", J^vao "kings", &c.

§ 47. The short — seems to have been e in the West, from an- e.
cient times; in the Bast it was pronounced sometimes as S, sometimes
as i. This difference has no grammatical significance.

A short e may often he lengthened in the concluding syllable
through the (original) tone: thus Vi? "terrifies", tCi^ "I killed" (in
which eases the second vowel is written by the East-Syrians with — )
should perhaps bo pronounced dtVwl, getUth: It is the same perhaps
with the monosyllabic o^. (^>) "suddenly" and K*. "six", for which
"^ and K^. are found in very old MSS. Yot this is not certain; and
still less cortain is it whether such a lengthening was generally practised.
But beyond all doubt w^a "my son" (§ 14fi) has a long e.

§ 48.^ The 6 (5) with the West-Syrians at an early date coincided 5, o.
with o (o— , ■«). It has been retained only in the interjections 5( and
-o| "oi" (for which others say ^oj). Tims wo have otherwise )j*$£ gotilti
for (io^ji qilim "murder" ; ll«£j saluthu for (LbS^ seKtha "prayer",' &c.
Moroovor sucli an East-Syrian 6 appears not seldom to be only the
rosult of toning down an original ft, especially in the neigld)ourhood

(') Now-a-days the East-Syrians pronounce — ,— both in cases where it cor-
responds to the — and in those where it corresponds to the -- of the Wesl-Syrians,
—for the moBt part very like 5, and yet in another way than the pointed ^.

a

— 34 — § 49.

of a guttural or an r, e. g. <&o.*I (§ 40 C), lia±.) "small", IJojoj "hole",
Ifco^dia*. "report", lxo_«, "rock", and many others: so too in the neigh-
bourhood of an n, e. ff. (jol! "oven", Jjcu^"terit". In many eases 6
may denote an o originally short, hut lengthened hy tile tone; so perhaps
in ^Q-4-QJ "kills", jiOjjd "sanctuary" (§103), &c. Still, there is as little
certainty ahout this as ahout the similar case in § 47.

Tiie East-Syrians in particular distinguish also a short 6 (») from
a short o («,), but this distinction is of little importance. Here too a
guttural or an r frequently seems to bring about the 6 pronunciation,
e. (/.: lb^a^M.1 "glory", JL'joi "manger", &0.

It is curious that the West-Syrians have, besides the form "^d "all",
the form leal, which accordingly they have to write ^A. Is it a length-
ened leol? So too ofvi, yV£, &c.

While even with the East-Syrians the sound o began pretty early
to pass into u, the tradition varies a good deal in the case of 6 and o;
but with respect to cases of grammatical importance there is no doubt
whatever.

Greek o and to are with the West-Syrians either retained, — and
then they are written o— , — , e. g. <£oojojt, taojiL &poyog — ,or they
become u. There is a good deal of variation in the usage, e. y. iflqqft^ - &
and iflon9 i .N,.3, jS mn^ oi and Jja*a^*o* y]js/j.w &c.

With the East-Syrians 6 corresponds to the Greek o and «, in so
far as they keep from altering the words more decidedly.

As they cannot express an o without a vowel letter, they put - 1 -
with defective-writing for the Greek o, a>, and pronounce it it, c. //.
t£aoiiolL Theudaros for ifioofjoll Qeobvpog.

§ 49. A. The diphthongs ai and cm remain very steady, particularly
in the beginning of a word, although in dialects the pronunciation o and
o occurred. Commonly, however, simplification of the diphthong prevails
in a closed syllable. The West-Syrians farther proceed (according to
§ 46) to turn the e occasionally into % and the o always into u (§ 48) :
thus, along with !&-», K*a "house"; with JLuE., ^*x* "strength"; with
JL*^., ^. "eye"; ^.^o from meyallain, "they reveal" ; ^.Vl from terain,
"two"; Isojy, adn, aim "end", &c. So by analogy from ^V. (in

§50. _ 35 _

oculo = coram) even in an open syllable ^oini.sV, -oiiu^X &o. coram
eo; but only in tlio prepositional use; for example, otherwise, ■ .Sj aia^
"to his eyes".

,oo)J.aa, -taso "tlieir, my dcatli", ^o-ai*^ "your eye", Ac. form
no exception, for in these cases it was only in the last development that
tho syllable became a closed one. Thus also is explained perhaps the
retention of the id before suffixes, in forms like y.~S~ (from malkaiku),
<H^( frul " «'«*»««) "thy, our kings", and hi verbal forms like L^^
: ™ (1 . cji^ (from i/dlaihl, fjiilaiuil) "thou didst reveal", "we revealed".
In iO^. "is not", from K.I J|, the diphthong is of more recent origin.
On the other band we have simplification in l\ial, jij t » ow", from
taurethd, and in East-Syrian Jfic*., Jyyv lali/tl, Uija, West-Syrian J?w ,
usually *£>•> from laileyd "night". So too in tLwa, fj^a "egg" from
liai'etJm, pi. JLjs, Jk*di.

B. The East-Syrians for the most part write o— for o— , and

much more rarely o-^-. So also in cases where tho w is virtually doubled,

as m --.a^ = -ai v/j "pointed out"; fool KJgfl "thou remaiuest";

'f» = ! <H "windows", &a. Tims too in ')&& ='(^'ji "Lords", and

other plurals of that kind; farther in cases like -oi'ojii*.! = woioi^a.!

"give ye him to drink"; ojo% = oJoJjj "tbey ovortlirew mo" (§ 192).
Sometimes on the other band tbey write ul. for uL, c. ij. ujiu

for uiaJ "barefooted", and always in the Imperative ^Sj^o^o =

— oj^-ttgj> "kill him",

Tho West-Syrians also write an an produced by a and « coming

together,- with tlie vowel-sign ~^, a. ,,. a s, JL£mo mallmii "is king",

although the separate members are o^i -|- J^*>* With them indeed

ooi i riNy would have tho sound mallmu.

LOSS 01? VOWELS. r;0 „ „,

§ 50. A. Final vowels coming immediately after tho original tone-
syllable have all fallen away. This happened to a even before the settle-
ment of_the orthography, thus ^ from Unit "to us"; ta| from a(n)ta
"thou" ; kVgj> from qflAIM "bast killed", &c. (but JU^jHiirito "Itiug", &e.).
Other final vowels too have at quite an early date thus fallen away,

3*

— 36 — § 50.

without leaving a trace. On the other hand many vowels of this kind
are still set down in consonantal character, although they had ceased to
he pronounced even in the oldest literary epoch represented hy do-
cuments (circa 200 A. D.)Oi an ^ are ignored in punctuation. These
are: —

(1) u of the plural in the Perfect and Imperative after consonants:
o^Jgjs qatal from qetalu; o^a, o^^of, a\d^o; q-uAjl "they
praised", &c. (but we have the full sound in t&f^fjclfiu, o^^Lf/aTUit,
"revealed", &c).

(2) I of the suffix of the l 8t sing, after consonants, thus : ua\u
malic "my king" from maTkl\ uiS^jp "killed me"; u^^. <Ai*XL"re-
vealed me", &c. (but ^*^» "my kings"; and also the monosyllables u£
"in me", u^ "to me", in which no falling away was possible: So too
i-^wCLfl, w^£ "I wholly", "the whole of me" ["my totality"]).

(3) I of the suffix of the 3 rd sing. m. *-.©♦ with the noun: —Sta^so
malkau from malkmiM "his- kings", and with the Verb in eases like
-ot^v, we)a^>AJ, — <h.*^.q.^o, wota.ik.^j, no doubt from (jelailu &c.

(4) I of the 2 nd fern. sing, in -KjJ at from a(n)$ "thou" (f.) ; ..i^N-o
malluikh from malkekln (both with %f)\ u..k*.a.\*>; **aV.; **h&*Qa\
wfluua ■■, &c.

(5) In the following special cases: in uSs**. ^ "from quiet" = "sud-
denly", absolute state of JU^jl. from UU (like vjj) ; in *-&»J "when?"
from emmathai; u^ablj "yesterday" from etlimctle; and the derived word
lAaoMao "the day before yesterday"; lastly in the much maimed form
*-fOfeut£ (or jjak*() "last year".

B. Even in very ancient MSS. the unpronounced — 's are often
wanting: a similar o is more rarely omitted. Conversely w, which one
was in the habit of so often writing, — apparently without cause, — was
in some cases attached parasitically to words ending in a consonant;
e. g. there occurs in old manuscripts <-»o£$S for oCSs "God" (Construct
State) ; <*a( for oj "August" ; uuoi for wo* "spirit". Occasionally it is

(*) Even the hymns of Bardeaanes seem to neglect them, as regards the number
of syllables.

§§ 51. 52. — 37 —

employed as a diacritic mark of the 3* d sing. fem. of the Perf. e. g. —ICi^o
for to> fl r "she lulled". Such an employment of >- in the 3 rd pi. fem.
Perf. has gradually come into full use with the "West-Syrians; *A!j§JS
"they (f.) killed", for the old ^^o retained hy the Bast-Syrians (from
original q&titla, not qetidl). The employment of — in the 3 ,d sing. fem.
Imperf., — coming into view in rather late times, — prevails among the
West-Syrians, though not quite so universally; i. Nn^ k, *^$9*- "she
kills", &c, in order to distinguish it from the 2 nd sing, masc, '•Vo^b^,
"^>&ol. "thou ldllest" : the Nestorians are completely unacquainted with
the .- in this usage.

NEW VOWELS AND SYLLABLES. New vow-

8 51. An I with a vowel is sometimes prefixed to an initial con- syllables.

,,",.,, I ,. ,, Vowel pra-

sonant which has not a full vowel. Thus ( in (KjlI "six , e-o-»vi "sixty , axed. (Aiaf
alongside of Iba., ^k*«.; li£*{ "a written bond" along with 1$*; and 1 ™" '"'
always —K«.| "drank"; farther i^»-»[ "already" sometimes for i^»-o.
Frequently so in Greek words with or, ffff, like JL^;-Axo( or JL^^Ajn
arpars/a, i; .qroj and U * ° i ™ tmslpa, &c.

The prefix, pretty frequently met with in ancient MSS. before i, is
probably to be pronounced J; e.g. J vi . 1 >'»'! for ) m ,. *>'» "Beloved"; ij-j>!
for lf.5* "upper garment"; Ji^oSi for J^oSf) "firmament"; Ja-Sl for J^.»
"contented", and many others. So too ik. vro t for |kjj»yu> "a meal";
( t -\ 1 for \y^ ■ "ice". In the frequently occurring Ikvyioi the u of
the rarer form ikvco*, !&^oo$ is brought to the front. The early
adopted Persian word rani' Jj*{, more rarely I)), Ijli "a secret" seems to
have been pronounced with a vowel-prefix, which however is ignored in
the pointing.

§ 52. A. The poets sometimes insert an e before =» 'i* > after a auiiu»u
word ending in a consonant, e. g. ^otA. kj "is to them" ith elhon (with
three syllables) — vjotA. &.{.

(*) J^jueit is measured as dissyllabic like !^.-ub; in Mobsingbr's Monumenta
Syriaoa LT, 86 v. 152 d passim, but l^ill, «ij-»3«t as trissyllabio in Jacob of Sariig,
Thamar v. 247, 261.

- 38 - § 53.

B. Essentially the same thing takes place frequently within the
word. Especially when a consonant without a full vowel follows one
that has no vowel, a short vowel is inserted often between the two to
facilitate pronunciation. Thus JUufso = JL£j,*> "sunrise"; I^ijBf— l^juf
"fear"; <a-a~L*.L = v <xoi^ "you permit 'or remit"; ^ ■ ■» = ,-s.,, .^
"thou fearest (£)"; v oii^ = v oii,u "they buy"; also JUx>oi>* = JU^oi
"she swears"; fl^aj = {L^J "quaking"; and (LxjU (= iixjLj. v.
rn/ra G) "question". Particularly does this occur when one of the letters
is a liquid or i. ( o, „ o; on the other hand it is never found between
sibilants and dentals. A marked amount of fluctuation however prevails
in individual cases in the pronunciation of the various dialects and schools.
With the old poets the longer forms, as indicated by the metro, are
upon the whole rare; they abound in the vocalisation of the Bible, with
both East- and West-Syrians.

C. The small stroke under the letter, called mehagySna "the ac-
centuator", serves as a sign of the fuller pronunciation particularly with the
East-Syrians; the one above the letter, called marhetcma "the hastener",
as the sign of the shorter (§ 17). Yet often the full vowel is also written
instead of the former, thus *^*| or sjgj^ _= fc^j "I empowered".

The sign — stands sometimes too in oases where the vowel which
is supposed to be inserted is an original vowel, e. rj. in lk\aj3 = jN \ ?r .
from qalqaltd. Sometimes it is not easy to say whether a vowel' is original
or inserted. Here and there such a vowel alters the original vocalisation
more strongly; thus from lL\jx± "scorpion", lias come the West-Syrian
J4*"9^ aI1| i then the East-Syrian l~; a-

The inserted vowel is mostly e, but often too it is a, especially be-
fore gutturals, and before q and r.

The relations of Bukkakha and Qugsaya suffer no alteration through
this insertion, as several of the foregoing examples show.

M '« IKFLTJENOE OP THE CONSONANTS UPON THE VOWELS.

^Ttt. . § 53, An ! ori « inall y a consonant and ending a syllable in the

Tnrn.. middle of a word becomes, in combination with a preceding a or •£, an S,

which for the most part is farther developed with the West-Syrians into 5.

§§ 54. 55. — 39 —

Tims tfui from KB>iO "head"; ^s>JU "says"; ^<ia)j "eats"; (jpj "I say";
Jij "wolf", from KatSI; ljjl=> "a well" (also written fca § 46), and so forth.

On the other hand the ! becomes a in (li. "small cattle", through
the influence of the neighbouring gutturals from KWJ>; !M^- "battle-
ments" front Kfvpyy; U^ "a certain thorny shrub" from fc6Ng; and simi-
larly )!£ "bosom" from RlNfJ for original KJJfp.

In the end of the word we have Jj from ltd. In other cases !—
is retained here according to the analogy of corresponding forms ending
in other gutturals, e. g. J^£ "unclean" (§ 100) ; JWJ "polluted" ; JUa "con-
soled" (§ 172), &c.

S 54. «.oiii and > as final radicals, especially when they close onktoti*

° • gutturals

the syllable, transform an e into an a; thus, -^Jj "knows" (compared •»* of r.
with oKj "sits") ; uj^j "sacrificed", compared with^Jjp ; o,=J "arose",
for neveli ; WjfJ "leads", for neiahoer ; <^>-?oj "we made known" ; ^ploii.i
"you arose"; l^-ugS "a bird"; <o^»^»! "you led", &c. (§ 170).

In rare cases the transformation of an 6 into a, before these final
consonants, has been retained from very remote times, as for instance in
*x»!s*aj "opens"; compare on the other hand waajJ "slaughters", &c.
(§ 170). In certain cases they have the effect even of transforming a
following e (or o'f) into a (v. § 169). — On the exchange of a and e in
words which have middle gutturals v. § 45.

On the shading off of an a into e through the influence of a sibilant,
v. § 45 ; and of a it into o, effected by a guttural v. §§ 48, 49. In like
manner the gutturals, as well as other consonants, particularly emphatic
ones, must have brought about a special shading of the vowels in still other
instances, without the writing giving much indication of such delicate turns.

3. STRONGER ALTERATIONS. ». si™..,

alterations

§ 55. Wo find these, for instance, in the blending of "Participles and
Adjectives with the Subject-Pronouns: e.g. ^p)L^£.£_( ) o&Ji[ ^^i) from
qtitlln a(n)Um; *±2*§J> from ,-ll> ,jv^i; wfcJi..|a "beiwiliiia ill", from
wjoj jJLfca; 'fcv^i from klj^i (§ 64 A), &c. Blcndings with Ul
appear in still other situations, e. g. Ml Jhioi! Sakoat "thou art gold" ;

— 40 — § 56.

ha] ia*J Hibi es£"; &il )Lo;~> ;a bar baroyat "thou art the son of the
Creator"; fcjf Jxl»j cUliayyUt "vitae es", &c. Still in these cases the
preservation of the separate portions is the more usual practice.

Amongst other instances we meet with extraordinary mutilations
in the numerals of the second decade (§ 148 B) ; and farther in certain
compounds (§ 141).

4. TONE.

§ 56. The Nestorians now put the tone on the penult throughout, and
that very distinctly. The Maronitesf 1 ), on the other hand, put the tone
always, or almost always, on the last syllable, when it is a closed syllable,
e. g. "%~J\ ogSl, h^^o qetlat, a$?jlj ne£(lq6f, ^oL. yaumtn, **-o-»# Je$u\
and so also in endings with a diphthong, e. g. otf etdu, - »5*oLo&^ L
talmldau, s-oiojia-j. Hbqui, — oto-4»J ebneu. On the other hand they
always, or nearly always, put the tone on the penult, when the word
ends in a simple vowel: tU eto, {tJJ nite, Jto| sobe, (004 n§kwe, Jboif- 'dmo,
J1& mele, jy^flm sofre, Jjoi hono &c. Occasionally a secondary tone also
becomes perceptible. At an earlier time the final syllable invariably
had the principal accent.

(*) I am indebted to my friend Gcidi, following the communications made by
P. Cardahi, for the data on the accentuation of the Maronitea.

PAKT SECOND.
MORPHOLOGY.

§ 57. The large majority of all Semitic words, as is well known, strong and
are derived from roots which for the most part have three, hut occasion-
ally even four or more 'Radicals'. If the three radicals are firm con-
sonants, the roots are then called Strong: but if one of the radicals is
o or - (frequently appealing as a vowel), or if the due weight of the
word is attained by the doubling of one of two firm radicals, then the
roots are called Weak. On practical grounds we retain this method of
treating roots, without insisting farther on the point that even with strong
roots a radical is often demonstrably of quite recent origin, while on the
other hand there is much variety in the origin of weak forms of the
root, and while in many cases at least, the assumption of an original Waw
or Tod as a radical, or that of a third radical with the same sound as the
second, is a pure fiction. Thus we speak of roots pnmae o or — ('IB, "ifi)
[Pe Waw, Pe Yod] meaning those whose first radical is taken as W or
Y] so d£ roots mediae o or w ("iy, '^) [Ayin "Waw, Ayin Yod], and
tertiae — and mediae geminatae (to) [Lamed Yod, and Ayin doubled].
In addition we have frequently to deal specially with words of which \ is
a radical; for this sound (cf. § 33 sqq.) undergoes many modifications. In
like manner we have to treat of words which have n as the first letter
of the root. The forms too, winch have a guttural or an r as second or
third radical, are, by reason of certain properties, brought occasionally
into special notice.

Variation
of weak

rnoia

Roots med.

— 42 — §§ 58. 59.

§ 58. Weak rooU vary si good (leal in their weak letters. Tims
Don, Qllt, ''fin, hll* (to wlrioli is added another secondary form fifift) arc
essentially modifications only of the same fin id amenta! root, which
means "hot". In particular, roots '1J> and 'tfff arc very closely related.
Tims also in Syriae they very readily change into one another: the sub-
stantive belonging to lis "to err" (Perf. *,a, Impf. ^.ai) is ijos, as it'
from T)&; and along with the frequently occurring pn "to pity" fin is
found (Perf. ^-u, Impf. <o^j), and with ^SD "to bend", tp, &c

§ 59. Forms med. gem, in Syriac attain like weight with that of
the strong forms, by doubling not the second radical, but the first, when
it is possible, i. e. when a prefix ending in a vowel precedes it. Thus
from ttt "to shear" J^J aggesi (answering to ^^..ol) ; )ol [ BggO0
(=*Vo_A.i>[); ^ojl^j neggwi, properly neggezun (= ,o^..£jaj); ^Aiit "you
(fem. pi.) love" (= ^^-o}; from 32fi); j&-u» "boiler" (from Eon "to
warm"; J|^*>, jos^yy, jiyi "entrance", &c.

Yet in some nouns we find the general Semitic method, — i. e, the
method of either directly or virtually doubling the third radical, even
with the prefixes mentioned : thus Jl^-Eoo "needle" (not Ji^-uio) ; jx^tt or
]jl^o (East-Syrian) "shield"; Jfc^§^8 "a booth" (metaltha, properly
metalUthd), pi. )tQ» (mStalle); J^jt* 9 "sieve"; lii^o "a cave"; and
^aoKu, wojoioo^io, &c, mostly used adverbially, "completion" (QfiH),
"continually".

Two I 's stand beside each other like two different consonants f) in
) j"s*iin "speech"; j^-^p "cover, shelter" (§ 4fi); and the quadrilitcrul
form )i\a>Q-o "face". In these formations, however, the I is again dropped
in the usual pronunciation (§ ^9), so that in point of fact the regular
form makes its appearance. Add the peculiar form ^N,,(, NVv.? &c.
"to lament" ("). The following appear to be later formations: (JSi£*.©ti
"mockery", from ^.S»J (bbti); and from ^Llf, ^^4 "a prayer". Thus,
farther, regularly in the Ethpeel jX^tj "was shorn" (as compared with
ji4L "shore").

( x ) jJutjl f, formed in this way Judges 3, 22 "a part of the abdomen" is pro-
nounoed marqa, but others read jJSJ>r*>.

( 3 ) ^a-* "to finish" is a word borrowed from the Assyrian.

§§ 60—62. — 43 —

In Syriac too the second find third radicals, when identical, are
always kept in separate existence, if a long vowel comes between them,
in the course of the formation, e. g. JLLiu "pardoned" ; JULu "favtmr", &c,
as well as when the first of the two is itself doubled, e. ij. ^xCt! dltl.umnan
"begged for pardon".

§ 60. "With roots of four radicals we also rank such as are de- *'"">mit«r.
monstrably formed originally from roots of three radicals with well-known
suffixes or prefixes, but which are treated in the language quite like
quadrilateral forms, e. g. >■?•>; "to enslave", properly a causative form
from f?^; ~-i^i "to estrange", "to alienate", from — j,.oaj "strange",
from 13J, &c.

§ 61. Nouns, properly so called (Substantives and Adjectives), and no,™ »ia
verbs, have in all respects such a form that they are subject to the scheme *"*''
of derivation from roots composed of three or more radicals, although
sufficient traces survive to show that this condition was not, throughout
and everywhere, the original one. The only marked divergences in
formation, however, are found on the one hand with the Pronouns
(which originate partly in the welding together of very short fragments
of words), and on the other hand with many old Particles. To these two
classes, the Pronouns and Particles,— we must therefore assign a separate
place, although both in conception and usago they belong to the Noun.
The same treatment must bo extended to the Numerals, which, to bo
sure, stand in form much nearer to the usual tri-radical formations.

§ 62. Overagainst all true words, or words that express some *»t«-
concoption, stand the expressions of feeling— 0? the Interjections, which i °°"°°*
originally arc not true words at all, but gradually enter, — at least in
part, — into purely grammatical associations, and even serve to form
notional words. Thus w& "woe!" is a mere exclamation of pain, and
uclb "fyo!" ono of detestation; but i^-.,^N, wo "woe to the man!" or
^^^ ~°-® " f y° u l>»" tlic man!" is already a grammatical association
of words, and JUA "tho woo" is a regular noun. (*)

O This subject might be treated at great length.

44

§63.

Such Interjections arc Si (§9), ^6! "0!" uJ, V "0!"; ore! "All!";
!o(( "Ho! Ho!" (in mockery), &c. Also tlie demonstrative form !<5t
"Here!" "Lo!", which is greatly employed in tlio formation of Pronouns
and Adverbs, is to tie regarded as originally an interjection.

Personal
Pronouns.
Subject-
Forms.

§63.

I. NOUNS.
1. PRONOtTNS.O

PERSONAL PRONOUNS,
(a) Suhject-Forms.

1. pers.

2. pers.

"I"

"Thou'

'(

f m. "He"
3 ' perS ' J f. "She"

1. pers. ""We"

2. pers. "You"

■■{■:

3. pers. "They"

Separate Forms.

H (W)
Jbij

—°*

,QJO(

Enclitic Forms.

& (W), s

o«, o (§ 38)
.61

<i{

On aioot "he is", i*5ot "she is" v. § 38.

Mem. The form ^' ■"?, — (originally anahn&n, but in our literature
certainly no longer of three syllables, indeed seldom having two as
dnahnan, and commonly being monosyllabic in speech, and merely a
remnant of early orthography for ^u>, »-j), — is found only in old
manuscripts.

^ojf, ^j{, besides representing enclitic Subject-forms or Copula-forms
(§ 311 sq.), represent also for the 3 rd pers. pi. the Object, which is ox-

( x ) Notice the points (§ 6), which with many of tliene worda are set down al-
most without exception, even with the full vocalisation.

§ 64 — 45 —

pressed by Suffixes for the other persons (§ 66). They also appear,
though rarely, in other connections (§ 220 B).

8 64 Enclitic forms of the 1'* and 2 nd pers. often coalesce with Enolitio

° J forms with

participles and, — though more rarely, — with adjectives; in such cases participles
market! transformations occasionally occur. In particular in the plural, « TM ,
the first portion \i. e. the participle] loses its final n, while the second
[the pronoun] loses its h or a(ii). In the 2 nd pers. singular, the first
portion always loses a short vowel before the final consonant. Thus with^^o
"killing" (f. Jj^o&c); Jl^L "revealing"; i-*aj* "beautiful": JLa; "clean":—
Sing. 1. m. Jtf ^S or H±%1> "I kill"; JJi ^, JU*^ "I reveal";
jBl i-^suk, "I am beautiful" ; JSl JLoj "I am clean".

1. f. Jtf (Jjji; fi JU\^ ; JSI {**&*; tf U^?-

2. m. KSLA*; K^L ; L^Ajju; &*£»; or without coalescing: "^^o

2. f. wftCi^; —Lj*^; wl^.qg,; — k--o? or separately Jf^-a

Plural 1. m. ^i.S>^; ^.S^; ^ii.^.ftg.; *;**£?; or written separately,
though pronounced in exactly the same way: ^ju> ,jS.-Ajd

i. f. ^> <$*&?; k^ t^^; ^ v****; *&* *M ( sa y *

lanun, Sac.). (*)
2. m. ,6J^^^j&; ,ok-ij^; ^JL^^g ; <<&*$!; or written separa-
tely, though spoken in the same way: — ^ofioi ^s^-o;

2. 1". ^fc^o ; ^ I-,; * ft ■■ ( 2 ) or written separately, ^M^Aii;^-^^

B. JSem. In more ancient times, ew or n appears also with tlio
poets ( 8 ) as an enclitic form of the 1"* sing., and in fact this is often

C 1 ) For the feminine form the masculine form v *4-&A &c. sometimes appearB.

( a ) "When the participle or adjective ends in 1-^-, the 2 nd fem. pi. form of the
enclitic, and the participle are written separately.

( a ) In homely prose I find such a form in the Rules for Monks of M l Izla,
of the year 571 (Rendic. della Accad. dei Lincei 1898, 43, 10); *:*£ i. c. t^ "I he-
Beech". EbedjeBu substitutes for it the usual JjI JaA.

— 46 —

§§ 65. 66.

Possessive
suffixes.

written «*j, through confusion between it and the object-suffix: Masc.
after JC: ^*^j» = JSi \±a "I call"; ^?oj» "I acknowledge.", ux*oJxao "I
point out", &c ( 1 ): Fern. wJ%=^- = U Itg*^ "I pass over"; wJ£o[ "I
Hay" ; uj^kmio "I am alarmed", ^J^a "I wish", ua^jL^o "J am
forsaken".

§ 65. (b) S-ufftaeed personal pronouns.

Possessive suffixes.

l.

pers.

- (§ 50 A) "my"

3

I

2.

pers.

7

y_l anil after vowels y. "thy"
u.^-1 „ ,, ,, o^o "thy"

£

3.

1

pers.
pers.

7

*•

„ --*oi "his"
„ 6t "her'
„ ^. "our"

5

2.

pers.

fm.

1 t

^old "your"
^a "your"

3.

pers.

fm.

1 i

^oot "their"
^.ot "their"

Oliject

§66.

Object suffixes.

anf/fixea.

1. pers.

and after vowels «*j_

"me"

J

1

2. pers. \

m.
f.

»

"thee"
"thee"

CO

3. pers. \

m.
f.

<X_1

»

„ „ —Si, wom, and wojo (§
6>- "her"

50 A) "him'

1, pers. ,_ „ „ „ ^_ "us"

2.„c,u( m ; ^> u "

fm. The enclitics .oj(, -jji serve instead of suffixes for tile
3 - pelU ( f. 3- P ers.V(§63).

For the method of attachment of the Possessive Suffixes v. §§ 69,
145, 149, 157, 199; and for that of the Object- or Verbal-suffixes v.
§ 184 m .

Q) Masculine forma from strong roota are very rare.

§§ 67-69.

DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS.

§ G7. (a) For what is nearer] "this": mane. ,&, JB£t — fern, {jot: ^<"non-

TTI i o t > ' strati vo

L'kll'al ^*^»f (ill. ami J.). pronouns

Ham.. A rarer secondary form from (;oi is »©i.

Wo get qjA with oot (§ !i8). ]j\>r {jot ennuis atjo) before —at, thus
—.ot {;ot 7/«Of7-/' (hoooi).

(h) J^of wj/mi is' M*or« diduiik; "that"; maw;, o©t; fern. *-©); Plural
iaasc. \Q.Joi, Com. ^Jot.

JSJe«i. ./. vcuot, ** J ® t "*^*) *$ fte " ,miM ' ; no ^ be too closely associated
with Jit* "7mV; w , merely because of a casual similarity of sound, The
forms for "tins" are compounded out of (fan, (laud, ila, Ulan with ha
(§ 62); those for "that", out of the personal pronouns hn, M, heiiuoii,
Jiciiueu with ha.

Bam. 2. Only in very old writings there appear in isolated instances
the farther forms yoXot "illi", u*X©t "Ulae", and yoiot HIU" (a fern.
form corresponding to the last is not known) ; the three forms given may
he pronounced something like lialultfi, haWJch; hanoffli. Very rarely
indeed there appears also ,« = *^-©t "hi, hue".

INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS.

§ 68, ^O "who?". Jbk, *&, ^OJD, JLo "what?". Intorrofcra-

"With 65), ~6Vai», and fem. -ot ^> "who?, who is?", oiab "what n™*™'
is?". Rarely Jioao for Ju» (§ 44).

H+{ "which?" or "what?" m.\ (f*J "which?" /'.; PL ^>( "which?".

item. 1. &, ^oao, JLLo, Jiaao havo sprung from f»# + den, (Muff,
Mi Jfl, ^-J from the interrogative ai with (Una, (lit, illen.

Mem. 2. U-j, &c is often improperly held as a demonstrative, he-
cause, like other interrogatives, it stands as correlative to the relative (§280).

THE RELATIVE PRONOUN.
§ 69. The relative pronoun is j, f (§ 48 E), which has a very wide 'riioroimivo
range of use. The older form a% still shows itself in the Separata pos-
sessive pronoun, formed through its composition with the proposition V

2. Nouns in
the stricter

— 48 — § 70.

and the possessive suffixes (§ 65) ; u^-f "my" ; jifJi "thy" m. ; tu&»$
"thy" /.; o^»! "his"; 6>i-f "her"— ^j-j "our"; \?-^>-f "ymir" m.;
^--N ■; "your" f. ; v 6o>-! "their" )»., ^d£>~; "their" /.

2. NOUNS IN THE STRICTER SENSE.

(Sub.i«n- (SUBSTANTIVES AND ADJECTIVES.)

tivea and >

adjectives.)
A. Gender,
Number,

A. GENDER, NUMBER, STATE.

state - 8 70. Every Syriac substantive or adjective has a gentler, a number,

General

t forms.

statement: and a state. Tlie indications of all three conditions arc very closely as-
of the stop- sociated together, and almost interpenetrate one another. We shall
therefore deal here with the three, at one and the same time.

Syriac has two genders, Masculine and Feminine, two numbers,
Singular and Plural f 1 ), and three states, Absolute, Construct, and Emphatic.
The Emphatic State is formed by appending an a (originally lid?) which
possessed the significance of the Article (the Determination), but this
meaning has for the most part been lost. The Construct State is the
form of the noun immediately before a Genitive. A noun, which has
neither of the States named, stands in the Absolute State. The Emphatic
state is of by far the most frequent occurrence in Syriac substantives. Many
are no longer met with in either of the other two states, or only in quite
isolated cases : accordingly substantives at least are presented here through-
out, in the Emphatic state, as being the form lying next to hand, even if
not the most original. The other two states have no special ending for the
singular of Masculines, nor for that of Feminines without the feminine
sign. The termination of the Emphatic state (a) combines with the mas-
culine plural-ending to form aiyd, which again is generally farther blended
into e. The usual feminine ending in the Singular, was at, winch has
maintained itself as ath in the Construct state, but has become a in the
Absolute state. The plural-ending for Masculines in the Absolute state

(*) "Various traces of the Dual are etill met with, but this Number has no
longer a life of its own. '

§71. — « —

is in, and in Ilia Construct statu, id: tlic corresponding endings for
Femininos arc an, (dli.

We give at this point, lUJ an example of the most usual formations,

tlic Adjective <juz> "wicked".
Singular.

St, als. St. constr. St. empli.

m. JuS Ju£i J*~=

f. (Ju& ^-f= !^**=

Plural.

St. abs. St.conBtr. St. omnh.

,<-.A ISjLXa |k-*^=>

Bern. Notice that the absolute state of tlic feminine HJnRnlivv and

the emphatic state of the masculine singular for the most part sound alike.

On li and l| v. § 23 B.

8 71.' Certain words insert a y {ay i, v. § 400) before the feminine bmtaot
ending: — ftmtaiM

(1) First, those words (in all their forms) which terminate in the suffix °° al " 8 -
an, on, (fin) : e. (J. from ^.^o "murdering", the feminine sing. abs. state is
)'.\^v, the constr. state kj.i'y ',th,e emphatic state !lL*i^_l; the feminine
plural abs. state <J^j^, the constr. state K. 'iN ' , the empb. stato ift-t^— •

So from pa;i^SDie(7!(!(is,wehavethofeminineiLji6ji^i5>,&c. This analogy
is followed in such old borrowed words as JUiio|rexwn?> and,LU.arȴ mu%^,
pi. -iiivm:*, jjLu^.a>» (but emphatic state fem. (iiimi). — Exceptions,
JLlLuI i'em. from f '■'■■ ? "related", and Iki^l fc,m - n ' om ^i snrumliis.

(2) Next, the adjective ia±.) "little" in all its forms (fem.), except
in the emphatic state sing.: JWdi-j, k-Siii./ (hut IUoJm);— qVo*.;,
b^i'as.) (?), iM'io^j.

(3) Probably it is tho same with Nomina agoutis of the form ^.i^a.
For the singular we have JLtJofi "rebellious", and tho analogously-treated,
although Greek, word JU^ojdJ muSmj; for tho plural of tho absolute
state, only -JL^ctttj. Tho abs. and construct states of those Norn. ag.
almost never appear. In other cases [omph. at. pi. ] there occur |l^i.6-pop
"destroying"; Hj->tt=u£. "transitory things"; JkiXd^jS "murderous", Ac.
Forms like !Uax& "mortal" &c, without ?/, are of loss frequent occurrence.

(4) So too, in the plural of feminine forms of Diminutives in imo
(!JSvttd*i "yard [court]", pi. (I^ImoVf) — is inserted, as also in tbo case of
a number of other substantives, which before tho feminine ending have

4

— BO — §§ 72—74.

a consonant preceded by a long vowel, a doubled consonant, or two con-
sonants. Thus l\v»hp "bundle", pi. Jl^n>l&; ILida "tunic", pl.^Uu,
JVjUqlo; Ikioj (j/gfty "place"; pi. ^ioj, J^Iio;; JiVkjoj "tail"; pi!
f^.»o?i and many others. This formation is of more frequent occur-
rence in later times. Some have secondary forms, e. g. (Lins "knife"-
pi. I^iiajy and ils.Aiii.jjp (as well as (iLAiy).
pi. .mph. § 72. The plural-ending in the emphatic state was properly ah/a

(from ai + a) : this ending JLLl is still shown in the short words JLtiS "sons" ;
J\£jii "years"; Uy "kinds"; tffl "breasts"; JLp! (= n»t § 40 C) as well
as tel "hands"; M»i "curtain" (-. J${ "face"). For' all these words
v. § 146.

Aiya appears farther in the plural emphatic state,— through blending

the final vowel of the root,— in adjectives and participles in e and ai (j/d

in Emph. st. sing.), with the emphatic ending: JLajs "hard" (Emph. st.

U*j»), U*£; U&A (St. abs/J$A) "fool", JUIJji.; ^uo "lamed", JL-tf»,&c.

So with the substantives J^ "kid", Jjf^j JUUjj, "a 'talent

(weight)", iliso; iUf " re ed", JJUii; Lx** "bowels"! U&*; and so with the

Plur. tantum % "water" (and JLmji, JUaoJi. "heaven" § 146); farther

V*> '>™g (of animal)", JL-p^ (later formation i^jfo^ § 79 A) ;

|X»oj "image", Jajj "price" (later formation Jjjocf, "images").— But not

with the abstract nouns— JL*j "a rent", V'3 (as against JL^-j "one who is

torn", Jjjfj); J^ "cold", ^.

Ak.^«»d § 73. In the absolute state of the plural, such substantives have

•Lta'coor- », so far as they appear in it at all: ^^; ,;£»; ^Jl<S; -^bj; ^si. Thus

,..p„d- too the p ronlmciation of t]le Tery rare word ^^ must b<) Um _ n ^ d

not Semen. But the Adjectives have en: ^; ^A ; ^.j^,, (f rom [^
and from wi^iiso) &o.

^ In the construct state of the plural, such Substantives have ai:
xJ>S>jS u^jb; uao; caj*; but the Adjectives, yai: ugjbp; u^'j "herds-
men"; ^ "criers"; wiLioo "pointing out", &e. (cf. with "this section
§ 145 K infra),
ite. from § 74. The following Masculines form their plural from enlargod

Sa. foms m *»• They are to some extent words of closely related
meaning: —

§75. - 51 -

Jo{ "fruit"; Jii£ (l»»o! § 21 D), seldom Jf[.C)

Jbkos (j>dp/iciKoi>; J&iop Qi viYim §21D).

J^jaa "fragrance"; ji'inrn^ (also jj bv ir n-^ § 44) and j Yi . f n -v

JUt*i "scent" ; |xA*».

i^jL. "frankincense"; (i'^-%- and J%^%». ( 2 )

K'*y "salve"; JIAjbo.

lyn fi "wine"; (j'^ni (also (lo-poi g 44). ( s )

)i«4 s ,"colour" ; USi^, usually )iS-^.

J^aoj "dyed stuff" ; Ji^e£ and J^.ioj.

l\*~\ "wool"; )j-i;v)V "woollen stuffs".

l^irtj "flesh" ; \fijna, together with !%oaa. (').

Jmi^"iace" (y&of); fffi'^ i »l so with imi^.

JU£o£ "foliage"; JiI3a^..

J^-V* "ruler" ; )£$.--^J»- and J$i-^«- From that form (B$i^f)
the singular ll'fl.'s; has been derived anew.

JjlJLc "priest" ; lliiio, usually J« v i n .

1=>* "teacher" ; )iaj (very rarely indeed a sing, from it occurs Hit) ;
JLiAi'oj "magnates" (v. § 146). ( 6 )

S 75. Feminine substantives in |iL_ have i»_ in the absolute state ?•"■ '»
of the singular (§ 26 0). Thus IV-"^?!; "garment", ojbjJ.; It^n* "jour-
ney", *-!*»; ik-i-o "beam", ^.pS; (k*%> "usury", **£*. In the construct
state lv*-l: its ■>» L "narration", V^iA. But in adjectives, e. rj. ilUS;

(') The East-Syrians say abhti, (§ 45) &c, with a. The aha. state is ,JSial : So
far as such state appears in the case of the others, it is dealt with in a correspond-
ing way.

C) Singular J!^ is "tar".

(*) Thus the Burale tantum yijr* "spices" dearly belongs to a sing.
Ji^A ; and bo JiVa^ "herbs", and Jj«*.vj "seeds, plants" muBt be plurals of U*> and
Ji.i/ (also a pi. LvfS). The singular of (JJj^ "a certain wedding dainty" is prob-
ably Ixpj.

( A ) l Uma "fleshy layerB", "membranes" is not however a plural from t^j,
since it is feminine. The singular would probably be Utma.

( fi ) Some few are uncertain. Perhaps Beveral others of those named have
simple plurals.

Fara.iv.utha.

— 52 — §§ 70 — 7R.

"jmra", the absolute state is JUjf, the construct, &.--DJ. Ill the plural all
have the consonantal y: &-?*», *^o?, &c.

§ 76. A. Words in ito_ (purely feminine tthxtrart nouns) have
o— in the ahsolutc state of the' singular (§ 26 0), and to in the con-
struct state, while in the plural they have for states aim., constr., eroph. —
<o, to, Uo. Thus for instance, o. ^Sv> "kingdom", loA^ip, (to ^vap ; and
in plural ^ o'iNy , to H\y, tyo *iNy. — o^» "a request", toj£a, (to^a;
plural, ^oia, &c. — (|o»^» "chastisement"; (tojpo, &c.

From J|oijo| "healing",' there is formed (from an old ground-form
itoj&l) H&n\ or (§ 40 C) ^cLin)(. Even from Jta^^s "hall", (tojowB
"testimony", !^ott» "inheritance", the plural is Iti^^s, l^o;bV», t^il^*:
still there is also found, conformably to the original formation, l^o.^^s,
(to;cHXo.

Prom !|o^a^ "manliness" comes the plural !to^^^"woudols".

B. Notice specially besides: l^o-»j "image" (toio;, o-»j); pi. (io-io?
(^osSj). !^a=_j "thing" (tosj, oa,); pi. ||aij (^j). !|<^£ "animal"
and l£o£L "joy" (for and with J^q-ljIO, itoji § 40 I)) form regularly
ta*i, tojjLi, ioji ; Plural being, of course, Itoii, ftoȣ.
Eemji^u. § 77. Feminities in oth&C): JtoXj "prayer", const]', state, toi^j,—

P L 'f^j' v^-l So ^°'- L> "thigh", ij-o't"; Ifija, Jto-ja "sawdust". On
the other hand Ito-uso "stroke", abs. st. Jo-iam: in plural |lo_usi>, .q_ujo
(without a before o).
iwtoitti. § 78. Feminine forms in athaf) (in the singular occurring nearly

always in the emphatic state) have in the plural moalha: It^a "thumb",
!liij»; ( Jkiao "portion", (t&i», ,aia5, &c. Similarly JtoJUji (for KJJJKIJ)
fromitjip "a hundred". Some of these words in atha form the plural

(*) But of courae the Abstract Noun IJaii = nm»n "liveliness", which is
formed by *i "living", combined with the suffix ith (§ 108),— although in outward
appearance it coincides with I 'hit = sni;n "animal"— has oit in the Abs. si. and
l«la in the Constr. at.

( 2 ) The Singular-formB not adduced (st. abs. or constr.) I cannot vouch for.
The corresponding Plural-forms (in an and ath) are easily supplied.

(*) <V*< Pi- IJ*J», properly an Abstract noun, is masculine, when it moans

"associate"

§ 79. - 53 —

as it' the I belonged to the stem ami they wore, masculine; thus l&^a
"socking for", I^&; fl{j "dirt" (I'm; Nrtws § 31* A), {jj|.

ikofcaao "oath" (Ahs. st. I&aip, oonstr. st. JSaoasp) remains unaltered
in the plural, ffcooa^o; or from it. secondary form iJS^baip, it forms

lh*J* "sister", — plural, lloJ^l v. § 146.

§ 79. A. A number of maMiitiine- xitlwtanUrcH in U form their plural k*i
in JU— , instead of following § 72. C)

Thus in particular :

JL£*6i "manger", ?Uj6l( a ) (§ S4); Mi " liou "> 'fVJ <§ 146 )i ^^
■"pipe", {l&aaa; JLj-E» "breast", floJLC; (and JL-f-ii); JL.O& "serpent", It&Q-ii;
JUsjq-^ "crane", {lAsVaiS; JLLcd»o_£ "throne", {l&j»»a£; Jii_!j "heap",
(Lo-^o; JUW (for lail&tju, .§ 49 A.) "night", JXnNvS, ; \h& "oowels",
U&yo, generally U^o (§ 72); JJ»J "rent", itoVj (as well as JLfVp; J-£v**>
"extracting-fork", fWSjjbe; JUi»am "horse", llajapdm ( 3 ) ; the compound
JLfty=* "pillow" (§ 141), with the irregular plural, tlogm^ ( 4 ) ; and the
substantive participles: U^-\ "shepherd", JLo.^;; Mflo| "physician",
ilo-cbj; J^v» "Lord", ilo-£& (§ 146); JUaJt, "cup-hearer", II&A&.

So also the feminine JLLoj "shoe])", jL&iij; and JLLuJ "mill", ll6J*i
with JU.jEJj.

Farther Itixfoa from J^jja-a "a mule", for which others give il&tjos
(not so well authenticated). ( fi )

Besides, it is .common with (J reek words, — particularly feminines:
Jd>oj*> juohiog, llty&; JL^.3 irkarsla, UA^Sft; JL-JQ-^ yw/«, {L&jo^,
and many others. Also with other terminations: k&Xov, il&^o-o;
»cl-j^§-£e>{ ordfaw, llfy^ml; (j.a|» fj,Yj%avvj, iloiojbo, and many others.

( 1 ) I ailduoo those only which arc well attested.

(, 2 ) So the later formation Uivo^for JU*^(§ 72), where the short « is treated
as long.

( s ) A. lato formation is J.*ib*^>.

C) ThiB form appears to to tho only correct oni!.

( n ) Later formation, — -isij4*. Along with it tliero ia found (from the rare
|I,o*) tho fern, iiij^, plural lU,4J».

_ 54 — §§ 80. 81.

The vocalisation is not always certain in these cases: occasionally
secondary forms are found besides, as from JL;<uo, Jjfao (§ 72).

The peculiar JUsJL "pot-stand, hearth", properly a plural-form, forms
a new plural, iLdaL: a secondary form is JUst.

B. In addition the following words, not ending in ?/«, form plurals
ill H*:—

(1) Masculines, tailing — before the o: \\l\ "place, l|*J'tjjO (M*
"strength", t^syf. (and ](U£); lii. "heart", IJfsf*- (<u»d J%%0i If<*i
"riTer", !|A>otj; !jt»^ "midday", l(°>°r!J- In the later speech there are
a few additional examples.

(2) Feminines, not taking — before the o: I&^ool "folic", !^o.»{;
lka>{ "wall", ^SSia>| (usually JLcb^ § 80); t\\ "sign", ijoij; JJUo "village",
ijofci; !Ki( "fever", l^oKAf (§ 114); !;oj "fire", J^iQJ (also fjoj);
i'iaos "lip", l|%> (§ 146). C)

rrataiin- § 80. In §§ 78 and 79 B we have already had several feminines

treated u which treat their I in the plural as if it belonged to the stem. So, farther,

a radical.

?&>"»■, {&*ju&«. "twig", ^&jua[A, jj^aajl; Il^oj "sweat", "exudation"
{&&.o;: IKZ "bag", "beam", l&jl; iyjjio "tribute", !i!fs? : perhaps too
ik-of "sting, prick" ( 3 ) belongs to this class, with pi. (kiij : perhaps also (Kjap
"stem" with pi. Jfcjip. Several plurals of Abstracts like !&.»j, as pi. of Iks]
"care", are doubtful (iUoi "contention", "litigation" is regular: fyj&i).
UJf Yi y "a balance" has, according to some, the pi. iyrihy, but ^JU£i»
is better (for vnasseatha ytf&X).
Failing S 81. A large number of feminines, particularly names of plants,

away of A " J

fem.-endmg have a fem in ine termination in the singular, but not in the plural.
Thus e. g. \kx>[ "ell",' ,jS(, J^iJ; !&jsd£ "wall", JbobJ; fl^uoo* (commonly
!KixSo| § 51) "a patch", J^oo> ; jiki^ "garden", Jii^; i^-ia "egg",
J»a (along with Ikia "vaults") ; lijuiao "ship", JL&m (with l^liano) ;

( x ) The simple pi. is given in ^/iM \ia "in all places", — "everywhere".

( 2 ) Notice with regard to the foregoing sections that the East-Syrians write
ll'i— for lli— (§ 49 B).

( B ) This (with ]) seems to he the correct form. If, however, the * is hard, as
another line of tradition represents it to be, then it belongB to the root.

§§ 82—84. _ 55 —

(§ 28) ; li^A "a kind of thorn", JL^>. &°-> *°-

Notice— jp&Ajj "vertebra" (and Itpeaw), !-«W> (secondary form
l^ai.); Ifo^^ "charcoal", fjoa^ ( liltCT additional forms ll/;aA^
and ifc-Voi^ § 71); iSAv^ (secondary form (lao^) "vine-shoot",
l&o^J§ 28) ; ik%^"eheese", (fcjou^; l|4^ "brick", M%^.

The foreign word iLkij. (rats') "sabbath" (whose i is properly a
radical) is treated in this way: — <;";*•» ^i"' "' iv1>B ' st s '" s ' ^*

§ 82. Other feminiues do not have a feminine termination in the ^ f "™™ 1, "°"
singular, but take one in the plural Thus, for instance U'io^ "way", in B in pi.
iJ^iVo!; Ja.il "earth", J4>»j'l; JAaj "soul", (KAaj; )uio» "wind, spirit",
t&uuo? and Jjioj, &c.

Several separate the forms of the plural according to the signifi-
cation, e. g. |i.> "eye, fountain", J^iSj. "eyes", — JV-^J- "fountains", &c.
V. in §§ 84 and 87, the words concerned. (*)

Of masculines, only JUoa- forms its plural in this way, Ik&n- (rarely
the constr. st. k&o.-; — before suffixes (Ootfcooij, &c.) along with Jfc&ii-
(but absolute st. only ^ioo-); similarly [with double forms] l^o»Ai.
"names", together with loiAi, from Jbk*.; and \\i*s>[ "fathers", together
with l*4j from )k\ (§ 146).

§ 83. An old feminine ending ai appears only in the following ^j^"'"',
words, which are no longer capablu of inflection and always stand in the
absolute state of the singular: —

. . ^\<v. "quails"; wajq^ "a kind of bird"; uJdJLu "a kind of gnat";
u^»^ "spider" ; -ajt "condition (terms)"; u-i-a^ "error"; "^"^
"concealment" (only in u-*.o-^=> "in secret").

§ 84. A large number of feminities do not have a feminine termi- J J,t J*
nation in the singular. I give here a list of ascertained words (*) of this not having

(*) Very frequently a transferred meaning takea atha; while the word in its
proper meaning takea c. The latter ia properly a dual form in this oase.

( a ) Some doubtful words like f-i"^ — cmi I Kings 8, 9—1 have purposely

— 56 — §84.

told,— though of course not complete,— arranged alphabetically, keeping
out Greek words, except a few that have been greatly altered. Those
which always take the feminine-ending in the plural I mark with "Mha";
those which form the plural in both ways (§ 82), with "Mho, and e".
The others form the plural only after a masculine type, so far as a plural
of theirs can be, authenticated at all.

Jt^J bowl.

Jij{ ear, atlia (handle Ac.) and e.

JLujo' way, atlia.

! r | hand (Plurals v. § 146).

Jaifcj rib.

Ja% ship.

Ji{ mother (Plurals y. § 146).

Jl&J cloak.

i&l (properly pi. or rather dual from

*)Jt< "nose") face.
Jb^J hyena.
Jx$j earth, Mha.
P>.*1 stone (") (testic).
IjjUJ field. C)
jit£ she-ass.
I*JLa spring.
J^iaA knee.
Jijoa herd. ( s )

!jo.^ troop. (')
K/a^ stick. (*)
vine,
column in book. (*)
Uj^f^wheel.
JJ-^-^wady.
Uii-^north.
lijoj tail.

l<-s? side, rib, atlia and e.
JUJ a skin, bottle.
haaJj handful.
h->j£ axe.
ttjjl little finger.
(Lai field, Mha.
It-^ bird of prey.
>}•£% finger-nail, claw.

&j right hand.
(J6^ jackal.
k»Lp stone.

Eluded-Tie number of such IWnines may actually be a good deal larger than has
come under observation up to the pre,ent time at least. The same remark hold,
good of the fluctuations in the matter of gender.

(') Besides, ll*»l, pi. tyjjj,

< s ) Besides, 11+UI, pi. iLjLl (§ 71). It is a foreign word.

(») The feminine Ij;^ "wormwood" (§ 21 D) no doubt had a sing. iW and
accordingly belongs to §81. Exactly the same seems to be the case with lk*
"sedge-graaB". • E

(?) Rare in the masc, and not so well supported.

§84.

— 57

fcajj liver.

|Lu (V°Jl3, &c.) ark (probably a

foreign word).
fio-a bee-hive.
Jj-Ioji tunic (pi. v. § 71).
li-A-% talent.
JLk\* raft.

Jaxa wing, dthd and £.
J&3 handful, bowl.
JLod^a body, belly, dthd.
Jb^^D shank.
JLsK.o shoulder, dtJid.
U>aX tablet.
Jl^» sickle. 0)
(jl^o shield. ■

Uut*> rising (of the sun), east.
)l=»cLbp load.
JLujko^o calf.
JL^ioo needle.
JLi^o salt.
J^ao copper-coin. -

]L=t-s»-*> going-down(of thesun), west.f 2 )
}Jqj fire (pi. § 79 B).
JLjj, JLlj thread (seemingly Xivicc).
|aaj soul, dthd.
JLo£ sheep (pi. § 79 A).
lii.on.cn knife, dthd, e (and IKliaJb

§ 71, 4).

It-A-cp slueld.

jiiajao left-hand.

JLpi!iv locks (of hair).

tpooj*. bit.

!jlx goat.

Jbfl^aj- side, hip, dthd.

(j-ij. eye, dthd, (source, &o.) and e,

Iftjj^afc. storm.

Jlsw small cattle.

]xl^. cloud.

JLsubw boughs. ( 3 )

jalv sprout.

)\n\ heel, track. (*)

Ji=>t-9^- (v. § 52) scorpion.

JLa^_ trough.

|flpf^- bed, dthd.

JJ-^t-j- mist.

Ji^s yoke.

JLs^s idolatrous altar (from the As-

J^aj finger, a£7/ft and 5. [syrian).

jL^-j dish.

?t-^j a little bird.

f'rS l K)t -

(j.&olo hedgehog.

a^-p cat, pi. i£&-4-? (foreign word of

unknown origin).
Jba^.0 louse, weevil.
JL^olo a liquid measxire. ( G )

(*) More rarely IA^^j».

( a ) The aing. of HJ\.ii "loins" was probably Jfijit.

( 8 ) Sing, is probably JjJa. "mane" ; the plural 1-al^.- also meanB "mane" ; there
is also a pi. I&JU&-.

( 4 ) IK^Jjag, — "traoks" — belongs to the sing. IK aA fr.

( 6 ) The ^ here ia altered from 1: the word originally had the fem.-ending.

§§85.

Jjpa horn, atha and e.
^pV* grated cover. (*)
JL^i foot, atha (bases) and e.
JLxooo* spear.
Jjl^oI mallow.
JLj^J mill (pi. § 79 A).
\jix>i herd (especially of horses, word
from the Persian).

JLfiAo*. an enveloping upper garment
(word appears to be borrowed from
the Assyrian).
i^Sjk corpse (from the Assyrian).
Jjl£. tooth ad-a (peaks) and c.
1+*. navel.
J^.oL worm.
|uo~l south.

Add hereto all names of letters, like *a!Ss, &.*?> &c.
Farther, add feminine proper names, to which also the Hebrew
words ^*afl.. ^an "earth", ^d^jt b\&& "Hades", &c. belong.

Out of the above list certain groups of significations may be readily

recognised as mostly feminine, e. g. limbs appearing in pairs (but J^|;

"arm"; Ji'jt "breasts", &c. are masc), as well as certain simple utensils

and vessels, &c.

Fluctuation § 85. Names of animals, which for the most part are feminine,

uwnai of ° appearing sometimes however as masculine, especially when they denote

male individuals, — are:

Jb*j*o! frog.

J^jJj hare.

J&f bear.

jk^u partridge
tyajj stork.
Jjo- pigeon.

Radical 1
treated ai
t em,- end-
ing.

The correctness of using these words as masculines — is not quite
established in every case. On the other hand, certain other names of
animals, which have been noted above as being feminine, may occasionally
be made use of in the masculine gender. ( a ) Conversely, the masculines
JJaaJL "camel", Mu-» "ass", when they have to denote females, are also
employed as feminines. Also the word JULoj "horses" appears in the
meaning "mares" as fern, (as well as |iS.Afljj).

§ 86. Nouns formed with the sign of the feminine, It, remain fe-
minine, even when this termination is not so readily recognisable as
being such a sign. Thus, for example \l\ "sign"; \%M{ "fever"; It^Z

(*) From craeli, a vulgar form of olatri or clathri, which again is traceable to
tckxfipot "bare".

( a ) Often we can by no meartB determine the gender by the name alone.

§ 87. — 59 —

"sister"; !K»j "bow" (pi. iLfcjLo); IlLu "bag" (§ 80). The feminine ter-
mination is doubtless also present in the feminine I&.& "home", "village"
(Assyrian word); IKoJ "sting", (§ 80); IKsJ or iKa) "pitch". Cf. p. 57,
Note (5). But ILIj "dirt", and livvoj "sweat", occur certainly as mas-
culines, though very rarely.

On the other hand phonetic analogy attracts to the feminine gender
the following words, which have a radical 1: — &*[ "ground"; IU
"glue" ; !Ko "mote (nro ?) ; Ikajs. "anise" (foreign word) ; Ito^a "cypress" ;
ILoii "disposition" (ran); ll^a "leek"; I&.A "self-sown grain" (foreign
word?); Jt^aJL "rust"; (tvaai "sediment", "lees". In isolated cases
the otherwise masculine nouns which follow are employed in the feminine :
(Sous (East-Syrian ik-us) "abyss" ; Itvjwii "truth" ; fK-ijt "adornment"
(from which even appears a pi. IV%ii as ^ ™ a <>cordance with § 75) (') ;
!k_B "terror" (but only masculine Ifco^, and many others). !&.. "being"
is almost always fern.

§ 87. Other words are common to loth genders: — Jl^pi-&J, J-^ji-i'
"orange", m. and f., (foreign word). s«»ae r .

i-,.s-» "cattle", sing. f. and pi. f. ; yet also pi. m.
Vto^ "urn", "sarcophagus" (foreign word) m. and f.
!j-j "dwelling" (pi. j-f.}, II*.}) ; ™ particular when meaning "convent",

always f. (and then too, pi. always !W.}).
]^J "time" (Zeit) m.; "time" (Mai) generally f. (as also IkijJ, IMS),

"times").
Il^oj£» "a rod" m., very rarely f.
Jijl (/-■■*■) "palate" ; pi. JLaJLl m. and f.
J&Ijl> "sword", "destruction", m. and f.
JKlo "companion" m. and f.
!K.^i "word", f. (pi. § 81); only as a dogmatic expression, 6 Xoyog,

(not in a natural sense), m.
), ■■!«. "source", f. (pi. JSsfcao, more rarely (Mivso); rarely m.
I*om» "moon", m. and f.

Q) It is of course possible that on the other hand the root is >M, and that the
n has only come from lio^jl into the new root n3S.

— 60 — §§ 88. 89.

Jtmm "weevil", m. and f.

JUu^ "copy (of a writing)" m. and f.

ls>'+&-£> "quiver", m. and f. (foreign word).

JLoo» "wind", "spirit", preponderating l, especially in the m\w of

"wind"; pi. JLio» and !K-uoV (this only i).
Jb^» "firmament" (Hebr.) m., rarely f.

(li^, "stalk", f. (like the more usual JJ^A*-, pi ]!*.*.) seldom m.
lij+m. "herd" (of swine and demons) m. and f.
)?\*~ "heaven", is employed as sing, m,, sing, f., and pi. m. (in this last

use almost confined to translations of the Bible).
Jlaiojb. "sun", m. and f.
Jjjl*. "spike", "ear of corn", m. and f.
JLoJl "leg", "stem" f., seldom m. ' ■
Jkodoil "flood" (Hebrew) m. and f.
J&L "brook" m. and f.
Gender of ■ ft 88. Greek words keep their native gender in the large majority

Greek .

words. of cases. Thus for instance the following are fern.: tpa-op "a letter
ad/cpa; ty£so{ (constr. st. \^§j»j) "robe" arokrj\ (j^-?| "gastric disease"
Mopd\ l+^niacp "sword" oa//.iptfpci (this from Persian SamSor); J.^J^a
(jtdXayycc (Ace.) ; and the numerous words in JL_, i*-l (yj § 4(1).
Amongst others almost all those in oaao are masc., as also Jtmaob.^ ro//,og;
JLi&tdd ir6pog\ Ub+b KcuHog; JLcoiJLo tcaip6g\ JLodjo^J dypog. Yet many
variations occur here too. Thus J&^aoJ arod is m. ; liaapp 6 tcip/covpog, is
fern.; Ji^dai»f o awoyyog, is mostly f. ; {Jd^o %&5p#, (also io-o) appears
too as masc; J-¥i*J2 ti/j,tj "price" is held as fern: in the sing, or as muse.
in the pi. JL&^£ (like the Syriac word of the same meaning J&p?) ; ${( ayp
is mostly f., yet m. also ; Jbgu^H? 6 %dpryg is m. and f. ; JL,^;jd "gallery"
ctipiyya (f.) m. and f. &c.

Greek neuters are oftenest masc. in. Syriac; yot sometimes thoy are

also fern.: Thus is it with -Jbajb^ y±+s> ^fJ.a\ v?t-&& (\?*-&**^ a,1( l other

secondary forms) Uarpov; \jlo (JJo, JLo) pyjXov — * velum, &c. J%j? "h»t

water boiler" tcaXftdptov caldarium occurs as m. and f.

Qreek § 89. Greek worijls pretty frequently form Syriac plurals (parti -

endings. cularly when, in the Syriac fashion of their singular, they end in JLl),

e.g. JU»>o3 w6pos,'pl i»'o3; H-^ m. rfjW, ]>!• ^4^^ J™ 1 -^ <, ' !,ikI "
Syrian), }(nfr% (West-Syrian) m. refe JU»i^ ; JA-HV> khfptris, J^-H*" J
J^.^ l) IfnjfMX, J*J^I/.; lint often ton they rouoivo < J reek plural loraii-
nati'mis. Tims ill partir-nlar:—

l.'o— = or. o>oto).*s fMdoi; ojootjam Bti|/o3(«; amaojotiio! 6p0o6o&<\
o.rL.Q.^.in iVo/W; n,n,y,.'vn KhjplKOI, and many others.

2. JL1 = «/ (aooordingly not distmgnislisiMo from the flyrimi mane, plitml-

onding): Jjai'!<uo..cD awo&ucal (ill. of JLoujojojd awofiUffj "synodal
lottor") ; JJjAs? oiadyjicai (from Jta..A~?, uj3ul^.|), ite.

3. ms— , a»l— «= a;: imjask.! $la(tf/KCi(\ imjarool ovaiag. &<•■■ Very

often n»o is used fur this (properly ouj, lull, seldom answering
exactly to this (jrook termination) : a»tuii.K.j ;iooajijbii^);x«(> , af. &<'.
So >n>aJcL£, "&ja^ as pi. from isooja^ raof. This uoo is
customarily vocalised as ano— (to amend tlio old emu'), which
is to he read ax. So also taa-^- = ag\ i mn\9 t wXoi/cag] < ffi' i 'm .o
K.a/aapag; ifloj{{ dspag; tmo also appears fortius, c. </. tflo n i , y t m
'Zeip-^votg.
4-. im* = stg : imvmi^ ta^ug (from <m.mn^ rd^tg) ; < nr>vfnn o^X Xi§S/ff
(from *gn.,,mnofX) ; im. m il ai'psasig, &o. In rare eases only is
tCD— , ifiooi — e£ employed.
B. JUL = a: JuSk^iol suayyiXia; IJlao Ks<l>d\ata, &a. Add 1%— , H£(-l:
JL^sq^o} ooynara; l^Jaai^j tjjTTJuaTa, &o.
Tlio Greek terminations are often wrongly applied, c. //, aj>v-Sa^
TowdpxM; <mXo /3^Xa, etc.

(:lreek analogy is followed also ill tlio formation of *ml^, *coJU£^
(instead of M^8 H from the Syrian (k.1^ "garden", and im^i'mo,
imJLVai (instead of Mai § I4H) from IJ—ps "n town".

§ 90. Proper names suffer no change in tlio plural in cases like nuium
p$J ^'jl "two Adam's"; )ty9 *«?*$ "four Mary's"; fJLi^op ^iX "many ^Sum
Lot's" &o. Ho loo for tlio most part is it with names of letters of (he '"i ,l «'» l
alphabet, e. //. ^ t*LVlf "two Nnn's", although )joj is iilso found, &e,
Thus too Va^v *^jl> "live //<W', *. (f. live times tlio particle i/t'i'. Also
— & ^l "two woes", as well as ^*& yi>; for which others have J£& *|L as
well as Jy& ^jl».

— 62 — §§ 91. 92.

Dut.diTs § 91. Many substantives appear only in the singular, others only

in the plural. A good many, — particularly of those of the masculine
form, — want the absolute and construct states, at least in the singular,
or have these supplied only later and artificially, or at least they rarely
appear in them. On the other hand a very few appear merely in the
construct state or in the absolute state.

certain ab- § 91 b , An Abstract expressed by the pi., is found in JHu "life";

stvuctB ax- .. ■,,,.*,, • i- ,, ».- * - ,, I -•

pnuaii by J^"> "compassion ; ijo-fx. "emancipation ; (joAxj "marriage ; Af {#•
plum.. (E as t-Syrian JLa^i) "betrothal".

s- »»™» B. SURVEY OF THE NOMINAL EOBMS.

of th& ,io-

r»™. § 92 - Ve deal here on, y wit -' 1 forms consistin S of tnroe or m01 ' e

preliminary ra aicals, and with bi-radicals wliich have become quite analogous to

obeerva- , ■

«om. those forms; — as Jsoa3 "mouth", ,kj»o "bow", &c. (to which many
others are added, that can no longer be authenticated by us as such).
For the other bi-radicals, or for words in other respects very irregularly
formed, — v. under anomalous forms § 146. Besides, in instituting this
survey, we are in no way aiming at completeness.

According to § 91, — in many substantives, particularly such as
have not a feminine ending, we can only authenticate the Emphatic state
in the singular. In most cases, however, this form is itself sufficient,
particularly with words which have a feminine ending, to enable us to
construct the other contingent State-forms.

Alterations are sustained by the ground-form, through the approach
of the endings, but, as a rule, in cases only where vowels originally short
take thereby a place in an open syllable. The Construct state (with
which, in words that have no feminine ending, the Absolute state coin-
cides) exhibits words in most instances as still in their relatively original
form, cf. Ka^o, o-m*, >ulr, &c, which in the Emphatic state become,
according to § 43 A, llfcje^' >T ITI Y. fck*4 Many words of tho simplest
form are exceptions to this rule; and in these words it is only the Emphatic
state winch retains the vowel in its own place (JU&!£ ; Absolute and
Construct states, u^*> for malic § 93). In certain respects feminino for-
mations also are exceptions, like IU»|^; constr. st. Ifc^t, & c -

§§ 93. 94

63 —

fAA) TEI-EADICAL NOTINS TJN-AUGMENTED EXTEENALLY. caa) i',i-

% / radical

nouns mi-

THE SHOETEST FORMS. ,„ B m»»i.,i

1 . ., ontoraMly.

§ 93. Forms with short rowel of tho tost radical and ulismico o) p„,h,„i».
vowel of tho second (originally qaU, qitt, gntl) coinoido so frequently i" l'" U m""
Syriac with those which had a short vowel hoth after the first and tho
second radical (qatal, qatil, gitaZ, &c), that wo can only in part keep
them separate.

The monosyllahic ground-form qaM, &c, when no ending is attachod,
throws the vowel hehind tho 2 nd radical, in the ease of a strong root,
e. g. ufraa for malic, ao^i for gK§#.

The insertion of an a after the 2" a radical in tho plural (Hebrew
melachlm, maleehS from malaldm, malalcai from malic) is still shown in a
few traces. On this rests the douhle writing in Avjiii., Jjfci^^, &(.;. (§ 21 D),
which springs from a time when the plural 'ammna was still formed from
the singular J&y. Some few of these nouns, farther, 'soften' tho 3" 1 ra-
dical in the plural as if it followed a vowel: thus l^mv "herb"; Jami.
(East-Syrian) from 'usavi; Jija^ "theft", jLai'a^ (Bast-Syr. tradition) ;
J&& "thousand"; JL'%3^, <?¥^i an(1 'V>^+ " stock "> f-4**'' * c - ^' 10
influence of the original vowel in these cases is evident in some examples ;
e. g. in jfcjjitoi "ways, journeys", from lialalcliatlia from !&..oij.oi out
of original halalcliatha. But tho largo majority fashion tho plural forms
directly according to thoso of the singular.

8 94. A. With a and e of strong root: (a) Ji.\*> "king", ahsoluto Without*

of ilroup;

and construct states )»V> 1''- a^Vi ahsol. st. yi rf^y , constr. st. root,
u.Vyy, &c.

In the constr. and abs. states of tho sing, an c appoars in these
cases throughout: J&t^^"bone", )»fc^; )!*=» "lord", ^^a; JL4*j "soul",
«aaj. So tflp fc a "belly"; ja^. "servant"; **&$ "evening"; )o^-j "imago";
ja^£ "taste" ; ^a-u "rope", and many others.

On the other hand, a appoars before a final guttural and r (§ 54) :
J^Jlj "door", <aijl; U^ "body"; tfj "morning", &c.

With feminine ending: iKj&^p "rraeon", abs. stato JLcvijp (does it
occur?), constr. st. JsJ^ap ; pi. IKi.V», abs, st. ^n^:<i , constr, st. Kii^S, &c,

— 64 — § 94.

B. (1)) With e : JL^» "half", alls, and coustr. st. > ?5 ^s ; pi. Jj^isa

(the Bast-Syrfana JU^a § 93), ,^3, oj^», Ssa.—hs. the aba. and
coustr. states of tho 'sing., here also e appears throughout, is. g. (1^5 "foot",
^5^*; > ami "silver"; oAi. "herb":— -but of course ;oa "flesh", &o.

"With fominiuo ending: ikijj "plant", !k\oj (J&Auf, lk\&$ § 52 B)
"fear", &a. But also ik^J "brook" (others ikX^J) ; i^-Iiss?- "calf
(or l&i^. § 52), coustr. st. J^j^-, pi. !^S}^; iLj^ for itua^
"vine" (§ 28), and some others, — belong to this class.

0. (c) Manifest traces of an originally short vowel after the second
radical are farther shown hy liw; "gold" (from daMva § 23 D), abs.
and constr. st. ^oij ; JL^B "milk" f) ; JLaij "raven" ; JU(-s "town" ; Jiixj
"bread", fee. ; and with transition to e: JLaxo "wing" (from lamafa) ; JLa.^;
"dampness" (West-Syrian K£»), and many others. That words like
ki^P "bopo", f=j»; i^a» "urns", ^;; j^a ? "flesh", •, iy-» ; li^o "busk";
!>«^ s> "prey"; !v» "earth" (as a material) belong to this class, can no
longer be recognised by the form: on the other band the a of the abs.
and coustr. st. of )u>j "beard", ^jp;; liaf "time", ^j; JbaJJ. "camel",
^aa^, manifestly refers them to this class.

D. The adjectives, which mostly had e after the 2" d radical, do
not show any clear trace of it (§ 23 D): J=>i^_ "leprous", >?fe^; Jiao;
"sleeping", y.s2>j; J^j^. "stammering", v^-aA; |L r L "new" (§ 26),
}r° i J nf "> "difficult", uainx, and many such, a is shown in this class
not only by those which end in a guttural, like !(-oa>. "unfruitful", ; pa ,
but also by those in 1: llaj. "brought low", ^a* (West-Syrian ^a*.);
(1^.*. "difficult", ^§.2*. (generally ^%i-); )'-y "foolish", "Wia.

There was an original e also in J&k.o "shoulder", &Ka, and in
't^J-9 "liver" ; probably also in Jajoi. "heel" (still with softening).

E. Various forms with feminine ending are yielded, agreeing in
part with those under (a) and (h). Thus of words with originally two
a 'a: Jkaoju "soul", abs. st. Jboju, constr. st. kaj*J, pi. ItoaJLj; !^n%J
"expenditure", IK&ij (also Jkiaj) ; l^^ja "level place", !k£.oa ; ItOaj

(*) With the generality of these words the constr. and abs. st. of tho singular
cannot be authenticated.

With a. and

of roots

§§ 85—98. _ 65 —

"time", IWe>J,&o. So of acljeotives: lki».a» "tenable (I.)", (Lisa "hungry
({.)", UiJica*. "difficult (£)", Jifu "new (£.)" (§ 26); to which add |1 -,->..
"soda", &o. ; all those have in the pi. ItC^a*, fa'.., with ». of 1" radical.
Other adjectives have always a with the 1": Ik-su^ "unclean (f.)" ; (ki;j;
"waste" (pi. (Ksv£, with soft =,); li^aj "modest"; (lU£a or C6>JJg.a
(§52B) "pregnant", &c. So the East-Syrians have iWy, the West-Syrian's
Jfcjjjj "unclean" (f.).

"With e, !Ko;; "alms", IKi>>/; !K»o»j, JKaooiJ (§ 52 B) "howling";
^4V 5) "course" (§ 52 B; the Bast-Syrians (K J £i. 0, ( 1 ))' iKkSi.,5,, Sso, So
the adjectival Jkiujj "a female", abs. st. JLa.ru, pi. jN^ij — Of. (kij^.
"cluster of grapes", Jl^jb (§ 81).

§ 95. MS), /bring /rom roofe prhnae (, section § 34 comes frequently
into operation. To this class belong, amongst others, fc^J "hire", constr. I'L'Ti
st ' ^i; b-'l "earth", •**:>(; — (lal "mourning"; — JLaSs "ship", ,aSs.
_ ^ Feminines: UJijlJ "testicle"— (kai! "groan" (pi. will be ILniT) ;
Rji! "what is lost" (West-Syrian !J.,.aJ, constr. st. tfa!).

§ 96. Primae - (o) : U>-,-. "month", constr. and abs. st. o^, v^i with ■ .-.i
(§40 C) ; fc-vj "offspring", &c— Femiuines: Uk^p "knowledge", "science"" l°LTl
U^h > $& (West-Syrian Ikafc) "loan", J^jLj, JKsjL ; (Late "excrement". (o) -
— o remains inl^o "an agreement" (§ 40 A), constr. and abs. st. wanting.

§ 97. Mediae I: JL^S, JL*.» "head"; ju>, .«.> (§ 53)— Ma "well"; wia-noa
1=1? "wolf; k}l? "pain", o.JLD-jla, ill "fig" (§ 28)-;io() "weariness", S^ST
Wi !H^ s> "'"«»s"(onlyinpl); jloJU, constr. st. JLoJLS "butter"— ftS>4».
"question" (§ 52 B), IkVJLf..

§ 98. Mediae o (and -). To the simplest formations with n, there wffl.o««<i
correspond forms like JLsaop "end", adj» (S 49 A); Jboo. "dav" »i-- ' ° f ™°'*
do*, "death"— JJ^ "house", fj,^; Ju^. "eye", ^x; JL£_j> "summer"

With boo) "understanding", and the foreign word Jroi "dye", the
East-Syrians form the abs. and constr. st. ^ooi, vd^, the West-Syrians
<.?°'' v°>^-— Eeminines : Iksoaxi "stature"; Jkiajy "twig"; but ii»61
"cow"— (!_£.; "wild goat" (fem.), but Jlkia, (kl^a "egg" (!j 49 A).

With I: VJf "judgment" ()n) ; !i_J "yoke", &c.

( ] ) Similar differences of form are farther met with.

— 66 — §§ 99—101.

B. To forms with two a 's from strong roots, correspond (§ 41) those
with a, like Jl£ "voice" ; ^J», Ji^aa, f. jtSva.ro "an. old person"; {K-o.^
(aha. st. JLq.5^, constr. at. &*fl^») "distress", &e. But along with those
appear relatively later forms having a consonantal w: ^*>o» "free space",
and fy*.o) (East-Syrian (kxp; §§ 52; 49 B) "a quaking"; ILotoi (Itotol)
"amazement".

C. A. special class is formed hy words with e (4) like JLsJLa "stone" ;
JLuu» "fragrance"; IjJLa. "demon" ; (jJLs "fruit"; ^JLa, ^^s, JjJLa "just"; *n4s,
jLnJLs "deaf"; JLsf/. "falsehood", and some others, which in part at least
spring from roots mod. o and follow their analogy,

witii a and § 99. With middle n. The shortest forms here in part assimilate

■witii the it., according to § 28; thus J^^. "oppression"; JLs| "countenance";

kiddie n . ^ , "palate" C) && But -otherwise Jju^ "assembly". The constr. st. of
l)^. "goat" is jla*.. From JLa-^ "side" with ^^- comes the expression
ak ^a. (the throwing out of n being only a later alteration).
Witt a and § 100. Radical I in the 3 rd position still leaves its traces in UJw»

"tJtiJl B (ILJilob for «n«i^ § 34) "hatred"; ll\^o (fUi-o) "zeal"; 11)1$ "simile",
parable", fljls; and in the adjective Jbau£ "unclean" (alts, and constr. st.),
emph. st. U&ig, f. JJ&& LJbog, lij^J or 4*94 (East-Syrian).— Other-
wise the forms of tort. I pass into those of tert. — .
wttimwa § 101. Tert. ~(o)( a ): JL^ "he-goat" ; JJU>$ "mill"— Uj* "rnetli-

(*rf. -(o). tation"; jlima "concealment", &c. all want the constr. and abs. st. ; only
JUNg. "rest" still forms an abs. st. >-\g. (§ 50 A). — With o: |4u*£ "seren-
ity"; iojuro "swimming"; |A\«, "ceasing"; lojui "look" (pi. to]u&, ^*o)ui);
and some few feminines ^.<V", l^oifi "joy"; jlo^_£ , {L&1£> "boast"
(§§ 40 D; 76 B) ; cf, JlojJ and Ilo^(§ 97). Perhaps also Ilof^ "share"
(if it stands for rtri]ia&).

To those with short vowel after the 2 nd radical, correspond several
substantives like JLb-o "reed"; ).vi» (plural form) "heaven." (§ 146); and
many adjectives like J£j "pure"; Ja© "hard", &c. Feminines: (&.*%?

(*) The secondary form— *$a&, usually in the pi. J^i£, must belong to § 94 C:
Probably also Jjug .

( a ) On the plurals of these forma v. §§ 72 and 79 A.

§§ 102. 103. _ 6 7 _

(nl)S. St. Ua?, oonstr. st. t^of ; pi. JkisJ) ; iKJLo, Ac. Similarly the sub-
stantives JK^a "creation", pi. (J^va; fiv-as "direction", (tUiia; It^Ss
(East-Syrian |fc^) "1'at-tail"; Ik^o "village" (§ 146), and many others*
-which however,— at least part of them,— belong to the simplest forms.

There are, farther, special forms of the second kind, in atlui : [Lia
"seeking"; |Uas "smell"; iljj (for nfiMj) "dirt", fas., as well as those
spoken of in § 77, like JloXj "prayer", fas.,— to which farther belong
iXoa-o "dung-cake" (J&jjsf 1 ) appears as its plural, with constr. st. uaJi),
llajxuo (as well as JW*>) "rennet— calf's paunch— for curdling milk",
and (taijt. "wax".

§ 102. Forms mediae geminatae. In those without fem. -ending, no wia » ana
distinction can be maintained between the first and second formations : L°i;™° "
toij. "folk" fUf., ^ii., J^^. (§ 21 D); JsL "brook"; j}^ "dew"; »""*"""■
°j> J=»j "great"; JUo "priest"; xJ, JLi "living" :— Ji^. "heart", <aX;
>af "bear"; !?f^ "wormwood" (pi.). With Fem.-ending ll^o "bride",
'*¥^9'> Vb*b "magna"; (Wi "viva" —lls^. "cause", JK-, k^i., !tek£i,
(rf^V: %** "wortl", )to, fc^jo (pi. (kp § 81).— According to the second
I'ormation IkS^k. "produce", ft^SS.; itCi^ (West-Syrian (NSNT)
"lamentation", !&^^.

§ 103. With u. The forms qntl and guild were never so separated wnii » ot
as, for instance, qatl and qatal Certain traces of a vowel after the"""''""""
2'"' radical are shown (in the softening of the 3 rf ), which vowel however
can hardly be called original. The n frequently takes the second place
(or remains there only).

Of strong roots, and those similar to them: J&*.o.l "body"
J&ia^,&; JLljojo "holiness"; JLxuoi "remoteness"; lluai "bribery";
JLato! "length"; f=oa~> "knee"; Jitoi. "desolation" ; JLaaol "strength" ;
JUuai "trembling" (without assimilation of the «), &c. : abs. and constr.
st. )od*,^, uvcyo, }oj*m., y.oja, ■s&eX. So also the adjectival JJ)a£
"uncircuniciscd" (originally formed differently, it would seem), ^o^x;
as woll as |ba^ a^oTspoU^iog, and iV^cLi, "limping", "daiithis" ( s ).
But JLoiol ,'wa,y" and J^>o! "nioeting" have uaioi and -*Jo!.

( x ) Others read i^aj.

( 2 ) If, however, this is l#4sP-" with Qussaya, then it belongs to § 114.

__ fig _ §§ 104. 105.

Fominines (to some extent at first formed differently) : ik.»'»nS,
"whispering", iMfVn's ; |Ki)a=> "Mousing", IkiVo^; (tv=Ijoj "tail",
l&kiof (and IkJ^Jof § 71); t^Jef, Ikxjojf (§ 52 B) "elel't"; ikfi^oj,
!K.o».aJ "kiss", ilkAidj; Itj^o!, lifioj "riddle", Jlfjilo!; !W>o> (per-
haps IKi^oS) or IkvoJoJ (§ 51) "patch", pi. JUjoo'i and Ik^oVo! &u, Iltit
IKuo.ua "measure", )u«nv>, Mi*.a.*>, (&.,*, ' < „« rivi ; !Uasa^ > "eoal", fyj»«^J
iLia&u "vertebra", iyaoai, and (t^soai. (§ 81); Jkaoj; = i^ijoj "ta.il".

§ 104. Mediae a: JLuo>, ujoi "wind, spirit"; |ioj "fire", &e. — Witli
6: |>di- "owl". — Feminine !Uoj "form".

Tcrt. I: IJLiins "multitude", oonstr. st. with feminine ending LJU^oxo.

Tert. -: JL>o! "manger" (pi. § 79 A); JLSSo^ "young animal",
JL-p. (§ 72); JLfcoo; "likeness", JUao'f (id.). — Feminities: !K*-S6j "evil-
speaking, abuse", t&JLuoj; it. . mn •< "cap"; I&^6| • "wailing", (KiXoj;
ilU^oJ "kidneys" (pi), iic.O-

JMiae gem.-.^a^, ^o f>3, ^ § 48) "all", ompli. st. )Jcu>, U;
jio; "place"., yo;; J.=oi "bosom"; kao^^'pit"; l)a±. "strength"; JL&ojo
(or JLodao) "marrow"; l^saP? "deaf person". — Fominines: JKj>oj "place",
JLaoj, lx^o;, pi. JKiioj (§ 71) ; JKjol "lamentation",
■with fai- § 105. We have the remains of a formation from prim, o wtiJt

falling away of tlm 1"' radical in l&o*. "sleep", from ]»S eonstr. st. ts±m.,
abs. st. JLf,, as if if were tried, gem., but East-Syrian still JLl».; further
JKsj "care" (also indeed ik-2»t*, il^3j-l); ik»-& "wrath"; IkaL "excre-
ment" (as well as (K»k^). Perhaps also Ikro (for ll+ro) "stem" belongs
to this class (pi. iKap, ^Krb as if from nriD). So (fc^o? "sweat".—
Similarly from prim, i : ilo^o and J&..UJJ "breath" from ot-a.1, maj ; and
perhaps baas "lot" and ll^B "lot" and "strip, rag" (it must have Greek
w § 15); farther JKaa^ pi. isa-£ "drop". — Of prim. I in the same way:
JL^u "end", eonstr. st. i^L» (as if from Tin) ; and Ikja "pocket" and
"beam" (for {Ijjl. from ins), pi. I&.Z. It is obvious that the speech itself
takes over these words into other classes ( 2 ).

ling away
of lat rad

(*) "Whether it is o or o here, — is not in every instance certain.
( 2 ) ' l rV ('V^> r=*") "church", which according to its formation belongs to
this c]ass,_is borrowed from the Hebrew (my).

§§ 106—109. — 69 —

WITH A &FTHB THE FIBST RADICAL. WMUSitte.

the 1st tad.:

tj Hill, (a) a after the 2 nd radical is or was found in tlie ease of: Wit]l ahort
)o^j^, C) Jtaa ^ . y ; ^^w., ^ Xa a^ j fr. "eternity", world"; Jbofts-w *'seal" ( 2 ) ; and 2nd ma,
perhansJ^JJ "axo" (East-Syrian JL^jJ). The usual form of the Act. Part.
of the. simple stem of tlio verb lias n alter the 2 nd : )a_£j "loving"; l&m\,
^a_ti$, JL^^J) <&c. — ^^ "Hying"; ^a^ "breaking" (§ 134)—- »JLo "stand-
ing", ^.sa-o; Jkm "hating", fJjLro "hater, enemy" (§§ 33 A; 172 (!); Jll
"revealing", ^^4^; IJt? "beautiful", ^JL. — ^JL:*- "entering" (bbv), ^J^»
or ^ N .^. &o, Sometimes the Participial form is purely substantive, thus
{jj.o "a fuller", Jsk.il "doorkeeper" (wliich have no verb supporting
them). — Feminines: Alts, st. Jbku|; )jq.*js; JLl\l , ^Ji\l ; Ju,Ju, ^JL;
J^Jli- or JJi., ^Sjv'. or ^5- In the Emph. st. mostly substantive: U^-pj
"eating", "consuming"; Hs-aa^o "column", Ac. — iK&Xjo. With the 3 rd racl
a guttural: t&»u^ "bird"; (Ijjl^L "island", &c. (§ 54); but so also with a
(J^x^s "nape of the neck"; fl&^j^j* "waggon" (others fftjS>^»,). — IA»JJ
"whore", l\^)} l^i-o "beam", Alts. st. ^vo (§ 75), t£<i(jS, &c. — lijXai.

§ 107, (b) AVitb 6 after the 2 nd radical, Nomina agoutis may be mtus after
ronned from every Part. act. of the simple verb stem (Peal) : JJo^j?
"murderer"; Jboo-os; J&o^.^ , &e. — Feminines: &Xq..A,jo ; (fiooa*ji, &g.
(on the plurals of the feminines v. § 7.1). AVe join to this class several
other substantives, like (>6}— "jackal"; tJo&3 (with o according to exact
tradition) "table".

8 108. (c) Some few have I after the 2* a radical, like U^^ Sl b '! f, * r
"weaver's beam" ; JLJu.»| "a marsh" — {&:&.»;_£ "a weaver's beam"; iHs.A,*rn3
"brovUt" ; ifc'-a,.*!! "storm of rain"; {Ka*joJ "club", &c.

"WITH SHORT VOWEL 0» THE 1 BT AND A OF THE 2 nd IUDI0AL.

S 109, The short vowel must become throughout (except with I) a with H hort

vowel of the

mere sfir-M (§ 43 A); it is in very many cases no longer possible touted,;
determine whether it was originally a, i or u. Many varieties have met ° IMl °" m
together here.

( 1 ) Tho Nestorians distinguish the Construct st. — hardly ever occurring in old
times in tlio meaning "world" — artificially by the vocalisation ja^sL,

( 2 ) I&Kh is a very ancient word borrowed from tho Egyptian.

— 70 — §§ 110. 113.

For example we have Abstract nouns, particularly numerous No-
mina adionk from verbs of tbe simple stem: JbaiLi> "confirming hysoal" ;
fajt^ "decision" ; JLa^o "war"; it^»- "deed"; J VN "» "swallowing"; \'+1j~*
"looking at", "regard"; \saJLa "covenant"; Ifoi "exulting"; J*-^t "in-
clination"; JLoch "becoming"; ii-a-i "bonour" (§40 0); l+*>{ "pouring out" ;
ii-a>{ (East-Syrian too)) "letter"^). Also JLI "help" probably belongs to
tins class. Add Jlajt "cough" ; b-^» "weakness of the eyes", and several
other names of bodily ailments.

Farther, IjjSuj "ass" ; !>f,x "wild-ass" ; ju(, jcj &c. "man" (§§ ii!J ; 1 46) ,
and to*3s "god". — Add to these, adjectives like v^a. "smooth"; u^f^D
"bald"; JLua^J'baldheaded" ; i^jjao "hairy"; |1&~ "hook-nosed" ; yiAm.
"swarthy"; J*,S-» "worn out"; **!*. "out of one's mind"; ijoj "impaired
in mind" ( a ). — Fenrinines: IkacUa "resurrection"; IKuJui "discovery",
"invention" ; i^^o "appeal", &c. Farther, Itijsu "sawdust" ; and several
other words for "parings", "filings".

With .tort "WITH SHORT VOWEL Or THE 1" AND I (it, AI) OF THE 2™ RADICAL

vowel of the

2JJ ™ d tl ^'' § HO- All Passive participles belonging to the simple stem (cx-

2nd .ad, ceptiug those of tat. -) have I after the 2" a radical (and originally it

■With * of „ . V ° J

2ndiad. after the 1 ); so also have many adjectives: thus — ^-JjAja, JU^o,
(tsX^ &c. "ldlled"; ;-*>] "said"; li-^j "day-labourer"; |La( "sad",
"an ascetic"; j^ "bom"; jLj^ s "shorn". From mei. a: r j "caught";
>^J "mild".; j^a "placed" (f. IKsa^aj "treasure") Ac. ; but at,ol "wide" ;
>^- "blind". — From tat. \ farther, the pi. ^.Jlios, I jUlm , Com. sing.
llLin "hated" (cf. § 172 C; the sing. abs. state would bo uia>). Thus
also many substantives, like Jl.Sa "crown"; ijj^am "ship", &c.

§ 111. An e, which generally becomes * with the "West-Syrians, in
exhibited by ttuli "terror"; JUJLaj, West-Syrian JLhJfj or W*J, JL»*iu
"recovering breath", "recreation"; M*ld, )uiaj> "ambush". Probably ono
or two others are to be met with. (")

(*) Perhaps belonging to § 116.

( 2 ) I adduce adjectives here, without adhering to consistency, sometrmos in
the Abs. St.. sometimes in the Emphatic.

(■) The East-Syrians read /£. for l|» "fulness" (obi "flood" is an Assyr.

"With e o:
2nd rad.

§§ 112—114 — 71 —

S 112. Diminutives wore formed l>y a u ;it'ter tlie l 8t , and an ai. with ai of

J Sua rad.

after the 2 radical. Wlien.ee wo have in Syriao still Jao.Nv "young
man", and f. fkaa^x "young girl"; \y±» "sucking-pig"; and with n
still. W-;q^. "gazelle", ojxyjpog "hostage" has boon turned into a like

form: fv^? *-

"WITH SHOET VOWEL OF THE l™ AND V (0) OF THE 2 NQ RADICAL.

§ 113. The short vpwel was ft, — predominating with the adjectives, with ahort

i vowel oftlio

or u, — predominating with the Abstract nouns. Here there seems to he latand^!)
no specific distinction "between the u and the b ; 6 is in fact a derived ° ad>
shade from o —

A few exhibit the signification of a Passive Participle (as in
Hebrew): Jboa&> "loved", f. tK»ai»»; lloleo "hated" m., JUoIcd, (tolas
"an unloved woman" ; IKoojj "concubine" ("quae calcatm'"), pi. JK&om ;
(KaajL"thing stolen"^); JfcowOiojt "report", pi. JJ^-oia*. Farther,
JU,nA\ "garment" ; J&Xo&* "virgin", l^.ofi£a, &c. ; ?o^; "little" (§ 71) ;
JKjlojld "synagogue", ,-ioxo, ?£<£.q_ld; iUo A ja "burial"; {t»o>^^"c^l■-
cumcision"; lloU* (for llloU* § 26) "bride" — Pe*^ "ringlet" ; JJda*,
"skirt"; JJcl^co "bunch of grapes" — J^oit "vomiting"; floix "name of
a star-image". ( 2 )

"WITH DOUBLING OF THE MIDDLE RADICAL. with doub-

ling of the

§ 114. (1) AVith two short vowels. There are only a few cases; middl °
Hevoral can no longer be recognised by outward marks, and have passed with two
over to other classes, probably at an early date. Some may have been TOWala .
originally ipiadriliteral, and the doubling may thus have been caused by
the assimilation of an n: fri$ "small bird", abs. st. $.23, pi. <*£3j, {<£$;

borrowed- word). East-Syrian Jb-u "chasm", "cave" instead of JI^m is no doubt just a
way of writing HA* — which also occurs— necessitated by leaving out the a.

( x ) Perhaps this word, which has no known plural, haa a ahort U. In that
case it stands for It^A^,, and belongs to § 94 E.

( a ) This seems more accurate than (Utv, for with the old poeta the word is
dissyllabic— In addition to the forma given above, notice l|«\a» (I m.\j») "matter",
"mass", "sum" (properly "fulness").

— 72 — §§116—117

li!t "threshing-floor", iff; fc*>j "wedder", i^o{; I*jj1 "little fiugur"; (li.«.

"stalk", "^.^f. with fcvix*., pl.JjaA; JRn^it) "ladder"; J f 3ajj "hertgCf

hog"; I'rJxm "shield"; Jjjam "liar"; Jt^-J "one who tows a vessel";

and no doubt several more. Perhaps JL^as* "raven", and JLajoX "stork"

also belong to this class.

An old feminine form of this kind is also found in IKii "fever"

(f. from the Hebrew ng>!«), constr. st. KiJ, pi. Uo&AJ.
™;*2 r § 115 - (2) WWi,a after tlus f'and r, after tlw :S«> rmliral. Ad-

i alter the jectives of degree, Nomina Mentis, and names of occupations, — tlrnmuli-

2nd rad. . p . n

out: *.?) "pure , "victorious", MfJ, i^f), &»., —jj "contentious"; pJLn
"firm", from dip, hut with w, Ijai "keenly eyeing, greedy"; lili
"thief"; JA^ "butcher"; JL^iO "tailor" &o. As nomiiia lujimtis these
forms belong to verbs of the simple stem (Peal); yet there are found with
the double-letter^ stem (Pael) Jfcjip "speaking" (^sp to speak); )l-^ S
"destructive"; (afa "liar"; Jl^J "liar"; Jlijj. "loader"; J^Ao, "babbler".
— kf^/'hero" (§ 28).— So too fc=L& "pit"; la.3; (others"^;) "fly".

,™.td § 116 - ® f ithe "f ter the *" a " d » «far the *»* radial there

i m™ a. are but a few: Itkja "covering"; Jl_^a "shadow"; lul "smoke"- I ; *•>

2nd rad. j? > I '

"root ; (j^J "roof ; Kj. "tongue"; |l;Jj "hook" (pi. jKi*ij) ; and the
adjective iojl "white" (Ijojl, |Ua_i, il'j'cLi, &u.)(»).

§ 117. (4) With i» after the 1" and a after the 2 nd radical, a iioihc/i
Ld"»d"'° ad '°'" s can ,>0 fome(1 fro™ ««;/ verb in Pari or its reflexive, KUipaid:
ihm t jf%« "murdering", from "%$* (ho) "murdered"; itAoJ "warning";
i=»io, "combining"; (sojdi "supporting"; JU^of "pairing"; Hioi.
"question"; J^ol (abs. st. witoi) "off-putting"; JLSoi "howling" (from
-<H>-), &o. So also i^oaj "shipwreck" from t^oj muaye'ui.— Further
the adjectives of colour: joiol "black"; jxia^ "red"; j>\ai "yellow";
i^ioj "reddish"; l^joj "party-coloured (?)" ( a ) andjkaioj "hard stone".—'
Perhaps also Jj.sbc» "pomegranate".

Wit&uattor
1st and

(*) l}*fP "1* b™d" is qiiadriliteral (= !OJKB»).

( 2 ) So too is formed )sl*i, 10.4, which, however, must bo «/<!„««. To tlioso
names of colours, ,U (§ 116) belongs. ^.1, 04.1 (f. st. abs. tU4.l § 71) "artistio"
"artiSeer" is probably of Assyrian derivation.

§§ riH- 122. - 73 —

§ UK. (5) 117/// f/ after the J* 1 and i after the X ml radknl a large wsthanfter
lUnniHironidjeetivesanUorinod, espociaUytsue.il as are found with intransi- 7 a rtor tiio
live, verbs ;i,s verbal adjoivtivoH in 1 porf. participles (part <>i* them being pretty and * ftd *
recent formations). TIhih Ja-AJ "gone out"; *^-J^ "gone"; j-wa^ "lust";
Ok*&* "Hitting" ("having sot oneself, seated"); i.iv "parted, departed";
i»-jja "near" ; ja*^>* "lav"; y»*|i "long"; y-^| "soft"; ^-Xa. "mighty";
u^^cp "much", tJLh^cp, iLJU^^, ^JU^rp, &c. ; —U "ooiuo", (JL-»t|) ^J— -||,
IJi^u; ^ooi "been", ^.JUoot; k*J^p or k*iip (§ 40 E) "dead"; M-uJto,
ouula "fragrant", i&e. To distinguish these from the form ^wJIJjs they
are commonly written with the upper point {§ 6), e. ,cy. y*.asb = y^4^P
"Iminblo", compared with y ^^ or y»<-a¥> = y-^ 50 "spread under".
The active signification is remarkable in jJLSjot, JLL.;ot "guide".

tj 1.19. (()) If/'/,//, a after ilia J 8t anil ft after the <&* radical, appear wituaafta*

■ ■ .- ... i 4. ., i n i i i) 4 * /, i) / ;,i it tho 1st tuid

many adjectives like ^o.»^ "dull, (lark ; ja-*u-» "sour ; oq-uj "lean ; R aftor thB
Iq^l "lying still", and many others:— tfo&j "child", I'. ll?<^; ? ? a^ a,ia rild -
"pillar"; J&osijl and jKoaa.^ "rod"; jiol^ "oven", "furnace", &c. So
also Ita^ri "oncumbor" (for tttyjWg) § M&

1? 120. (7) With a after the l 8t and & 5 after the 2 nd radical there with«ft«

. )? *■* n tlio_lBtand

are a very few forms, as {iii; "wasp", (Uaaj "hee" ; u. o.*.& "dark , and ," t| after

, , ,, .... *J & „ ,.,i , ,, , ,i ,» * t>\ tlio 2nd rail.

JLaojuu "darkness . Thus some say (fiuLopi "throat (others (fisA-o^u).
Also ILojU. "disposition" (from tw "to place") belongs, one would say,
to tins class.

6 121. WITH DOUBLING OP THE 3 1UJ RADICAL withdoub-

1 ling of tlio

The following seem to he thus formed: JLo^ "idol's-altar"; Ja^oa«L™ a -
"stream"; j.^J[* "millet", of which however the first is certainly, the others
probably, ancient borrowod-words. Possibly (Ifo-^s "bridle", pi. fjo-^f
is of this class.

of four or

KXTJ4KNAL INCREASE. „„„ „«.

call with-

§ I2ii. Wo Glass nmlor this hoiwl also those nouns m which the m t«*te«n»i
raultilitemil character is brought uliout either by tlio repetition of one, or Y»rio"°'
two nuliouls, or by tlio insertion of a formulivo consonant in the root. tor ""-

— 74 — § 123.

To the former belong s. g. Jf^ac from ^ap ; ^SinN. from tto> ; (la^oa
from %»: to the latter ii^aoj. from ina; )imW, from DBrl, &c. In
the last resort indeed all mnltiliteral roots are reducible to those of three
or of two syllables.

Almost no adjectives are found among these forms.
The vowels vary considerably. The chief classes are represented
by the following words: 1^^ "threshing-sledge" ; f^ax.^. "skull";
ifc^soi! "widow";— Jj/^a "iron" (originally with e of the s) ;" jkjjfa "corn,
kernel"— i^aJis "bugs" — JLSj»>oj "throne", constr. st. cooSai (pi.
Jj.aj»>aj); !^.ooi. "mouse"; JJjjajo "knuckle, ankle"; JLVjoJj, (li,acu>
. (§ 52 B) "countenanco"— Jlspj. "mist"— JU>ojia> "meeting" (from
\sojim, "Wa^jjo;)— ( wtJ "millipod" or "centiped" (lit. "hand-hand") ;
)Jj(a."hut", "tabernacle"; (lia^. "storm" ; il^awjj "nourishment" — fcjioiji
"ray of light"— {$6$ "a kind of locust"; itoitjjs "crumb of broad";
(laluj "scarecrow"; )lal>A3 "a slender thread" (forms of this Hud have
occasionally a diminutive signification) — JLiaij^ "lentils", and many
others.

To this class belong also the forms spoken of in § 31, like !!.(.
"throat" for garga/rta; Hf;^-^ "wheel", from gttgUa, &c.: as won"
<^>°j, &e. from paf^ (§§ 27; 146), and perhaps JLa^o^ "star".
»ou"r»io, § ]23, A s l >ecial class > corresponding exactly to those treated of

«-;. ■ in § 117, is formed by the Abstract nouns in u — a, which servo as
nomiua actionis to all verbs which are regarded as cjuadrilitoral. As
(l^oi stands to ^%jd, so stands (laioi. "sifting" to ^o^i-, as well
as ifj^-aa. "subjection" to f^f, &c. Thus e. g. we have ^A\J «j n .
struction"; ) K\o4 "perplexity"; kxtfoot "exaltation"; Jjualoai, "con-
stancy"; lt<S*ao£ "haughtiness" (connected with reflexive >&=Ka.;);
kartoi. "nourishment, food" (with u&H,); JLJoai. or JL|o£ "promise"
(with wfajf. § 40 B, and retaining the 'hard' }) ; KJoai "announcement"
(exactly similar) ; (IJoo.^ "kindling, vehemence" (with V?o-!L ) ; W«f
(for J-jooj § 40 B) "twittering" (with -jo]) &a.

Similarly have been formed J a moot "addition" from .axooUJ,
AmoJ; (jjiol "brand" from jjioj; and JLia^ot "clotliiug" from *=l^
(cf.UUaXy. ' * *

§§ 124- 126. — 75

8 124. Mvu-IHUiml mums have mostly sprung from the nmotition m "- ,

n 9 lotloreu

of Uiu hint twn iiuHtovIh. Thus the adjective jn~syiS«, ( Jyi'Nyi'j •■ fa.) ■•■•<.
"complete"; ".SN-^ > i "ivy"; !;o$qa> "cataract", "tjnUa xmuiti"; JLoV'ir*'
ii kind oCbird ("piper"); IKi.oJ_^jjS "spark".

SiaR. Among the, mn'itilitorals sonic old compounds maylie hiding, uh i'™""U'-
for instance |;o£ojja "bat", and tlio much mutilated form Jcj-J'o! "frog" powib.
(Ilii 1 Aramaic original form being jmsy). UuaidoH, some ol'tluwu nouns
miiy bo suspected »r being I'oroign words, ii. </. Ijojjj*. "skeleton", "cornso".

(00) K'OKMATIONS WITH EEBBTEB8. ««'•> "'"-

"WITH it. wilh pro-

t; I2li. A. As ill all Huuiil.il-. tongues, so in Syrian m is extensively with ™.
employed ill Noun-formation. Jfirst I'all to lie considered hero the l'ar-
licipU'S el' all derived verbal stems (Conjugations), like ^&o*>, pass.
■^Ajijo ; "^jap, ^$-a*p ; > ^&*>k*>, fa. Vov these v. Verb »«/»•«. So too
the Infinitives, liko^!gjo.:5>, <i£%xi», fa.

B. Wit.li uwt are formed, besides, (1) words with short vowel after the
2 1 "' radical |La.«Jp, ^fV? "tent" ; !V-°? and Uk-kio "deseent" (nro of.
§ 26 Ii); l^my, Amy "taking" (iBl); JLam*>, -amy "mounting", and
so (Svomap (pte § 183); IVj-f^P "ehariut", "lioat"; ^►», ^»¥
"womb", &e.-^fij>, Jb^ "intelligence" (»T of. § 176 A); Ik4<*!?
"a woll-kiiown |ierson", "an acquaintance"; )4'- Q ¥ "Bitting", "seat";
JisaAtaap "gilV'.-JLtuup "drink"; Jt}^s$>, eonstr. st. lj(Jp "journey", and

sii (M»*, »1». »*• -!*■»? (8 7r ')- ,toS,0i: ? " ,mtl1 " ( 8 7H ^ 'i^W "l«» ll ''l"
(NfcM § HO). To this suction belong also )laJL^> "eating", J-1J&, and its.-!^
"coming", )Kl>so and lfcO>JJ» "going"; l*-»J& "cooking" (§ 53).—
jN. ; r^ "besom" (blast-Syrian it.« iny ).

from forms melt iji'iii., (Uy anil |ki»-*¥ "entrance,"- )l^sa*>
"speech" (§ 211)- |L^e, JL^b "shield" (]M); )U» "hone" ()SB0 (§ *>»)•

From middle o are to be brouglit into this class forms like Jsanso
"station"; I&h^uo "waHhing-tiib"; iLk^e "city"; (if^o "not", Ac.
The last may have been originally a participle, as is certainly the case

with IVH*¥ "I""' 8 "" C'" 1 ' it." i . y )-(')

'"(') l»»*lt», lk*J"JU. "saoriiiiiial bowl" is a borrowed Hebrew word.

— 76 — g 127.

A short u occurs in tffsi>*ajji*> "food", alls. st. J^LoJlw, pi. Jj^ijl» ;
^6&oo "lasting", "ever" (§ 59); no too i^-ioai^xio ''an acquaintance",
and several others. JLoEnmy (according to others JLo*am.io (')) "comb",
"crest", js a special, secondary form.

C. (2) Words with a after the 2 ni rad. )UK» "weight"; ijA^io
"magician"; JlAaip "a pencil for staining the eyes"; Jt-fYivv "saw" ("lb>3) ;
'r^ ^? "birth"; Iov^-m "rising (of the sun)"— pi. from njj; {Lijbco Jk&
"bundle" and many other's.

D. (3) Words with u (o) : Jb>.oo» "fountain" (jm) ; JLua&ao "bellows" ;
(laiiuo "storm" ; (latiip "stumbling", "offence" (the last two also with 6) ;
Jjojnjo "g lls h", "torrent" fjBJ) ; I6^o.b^so "weight", and many others.

B. jl/c appears (apart from the cases cited above of Up, Jho from
»!«') in li-K»jo "web"; {;-!,& "dwelling", "house-story".

H. With mu: JfjA-oio (others say )ljb^a») "spindle".

Gt. With ma: )iot& "nourishment" (pt); !>d.a*> "cistern": a lew
other doubtful cases might be added. ( 2 )

WITH T.

§ 127. A number of Abstract nouns occur, which mostly belong to
the Pael or its reflexive, in part also to the Aphel : Sometimes they have
taken a concrete meaning. Such formations, amongst others, are:

k-Hf "W (»f^ji (l^ii "roof" (\SSJ£); \KA s i "ornament"
(to]); V**^ "disciple", f. JU^a^l. "female disciple" (*j^j.); 1+^m.L
"vexation" (rfVi); i&zxol "something added" (>ai»o!):— Jaa-L.1. "com-
pensation", "hostage" (^.i); Jjotia "flattery" 0fcV; UoSU "combat"
(*^!); i(o^o>i "object of disdain" (uln.1) :— Jb.^ol "settler" (oj.o();
Jj'^oL "remnants" (Sloi).

With short vowel after 2" a rad., and feminine-ending: filial, "bo-
seeching" (^Uj; Ite^ "mockery" (V<S,j); (Jv^ "pollution"
(*q^); lku$ "groaning" (^jltj for u^tj § m C) ._ (l t (E . wt .
Syrian It^l) "shame" (^Alj); ft^rf, (East-Syrian IWoj,) "ml-

O i»*J*up also appears (§ 63).

O Ij»m» "city" (nn) seems to have been borrowed from tlie Assyrian.

§§ 127*. 128. — 77 —

dition" (iSkaaol) ; — I^jc^a.1, "service" (**^-*-) ; — tKj-»o-a.*i. "glory", "praise"
(lusa), pi. iKAijfc-L; (Uq^jjI, "wonder", "miracle" (vipjU) ,. It-^»jt ;
Jlia^L "trade" (i-i^J-U), IL^^J^- r ^° *&** section also belong probably
Jtioisl "urine", and iJ^oot^J. "skeleton": — AVith vowel originally
short;, also - - ffc^m^l "clothing" (■ - "n g) ; Jk*£il. "education" (^*=>j);
IKiAjfcL "narrative" (uj^K»,?), {fc^j^jil,; JK^oJL "praising" (wfoj); ifcOao>t
"foundations" (u.ioi{), && — (K*q.a.L "camp" (— o-j.).

Ro perhaps (LoiLsJl "atonement" (u^JU) ami lln trt^oi "corruption"
(w~oa»^), if they stand i'or ; ' ; ik-oj&il., :|! |K-amioL and do not take the ab-
stract termination Mlid (§ 138).

A few others too seem to be formed "with a t, but of a different
sort, — like KVoL ikiS^oL "worm".

§ 127*. OTHER PREFIXES. <

f

Some of these are matter of doubt. We have:

(1) ©f, I in jl^tot, ^.i-ot "palace" — {K3b-a£o| "threshold" (here I
is perhaps a mere starting sound, in accordance with § 51), |Kai.n>£;
Ja<xaJ "flute" (Eli); J^>jj "manuscript" (from *-u^J, root nrra); ^asf
ooncmttw (&${, root f)pi).

(2) j/a, as it seems, we have in J^o~»t-. "jerboa"; fcn v iu j "a kind
of antelope" ; JLiovla_* "mandragora"; {iaa-u* "smoke"; (foi-ja- "toad";
it .aft v. "thorny rhubarb".

(DB) FORMATIONS WITH SUFFIXES. (') <dd> ^

mationa

WITH AN (ON). ££,"*

§ 12H. A. In this c1ii.sk appear many Abstract uouns and common ( ;„ )f
nouns (ii) willi ii- lifter the l"nwl.: htoa? "jilngue"; Ui^ "l-esidue"; fj^««
b&*!J "error" ft i |i$ (TIB) "rock", fa). -"*

(Ii) Willi »: )i}Xol "oppression"; JijXai "gain" ; Jijjooa "oommtmd";
)i'«\ r.< "doctrine"; b||oA "refuse" (tot I); and many other abstract

(') In part with prolixos at the. same time.

C) ||{»1, for which also occurs tf&[ "perdition", "the notlier world", is pel-
liaps borrowed from the Hebrew.

stmUivo.

— 78 — § 129.

nouns ; but only a few forms from roots tort. — , like bJioo* "wedding-gift" ;
)■ • '" > " *> "swelling" (along with b.'-.v).

(e) Witli a )$Ji& "building"; b-Laj "harm"; b .'. v; "thought"; b_l,^oi
"pronouncing" ; bjiaj "will"; and many other abstract nouns from int
-.— So also lojji "look". A few besides, like (jL&ji "distinction"; )£j^a
"sloth" (perhaps b£i- "time" for Nltrj))?).

Beta. Of such doubling as we have in )11Jpb, )P|IJ, no sure trace is
any longer to be found. So far as we can settle it, the 2"' 1 rad. is always
soft, the 3 Id hard.

B. Instead of an we have an old ending on (un) in bd-jaj "tempt-
ation", "affliction" a secondary form to b fmj "experiment", "trial";
)"> j:: ^ > > 1"-^^ "revelation" ; and, according to East-Syrian pronoun-
ciation, booj (tlawona) "pity", West-Syrian Jjooj (tluwoiw =■ dmotlua);
V. § 44.

0. Of substantives with prefixes in this class: — )Cjjl*.» "decamp-
ing"; (>■>**> "entry"; \j.&.ca* (pbo § 183) "ascent", &c. So too, JijjLii
"girths". Perhaps also b^ol. "alarm" (from *J< ?)(*).
'■ § 129. an (I am/a, anitha &c. § 71) is attached to a great variety

of words, to form adjectives. Thus ^jj "earthy, earthly"; ^oj "fiery";
<Jfr> "talkative"; |i|JL». "one who is possessed" (from !;JL». "demon") ;
and so (ii.f (from the Persian |o-j "demon") ; K !\nm "heavenly" ; ^.i^
"slanderous" (from rapapj?); ILima^ "menstruans" (from J^»~
"menstruation"); ^oJ "whitish"; a feminine from it is Jt^Jjoi "white
poplar". So J&.JY& "shadow".

Prom U.}^^ "throat" is formed vj^j^ "gluttonous",; so ^vjj-i
"spotted" from !KXo.ii "spot" (pi. I^Sii); bJjoj (Jiajio.^) "comet"
from !K*joj "fimbria". — In other cases the i of the feminine remains
before an, as^iu (l)^ "quarrelsome"; ^m-S "given to anger"; v&.a.jaj
"womanly"; ^ij "angry", &c; and even from substantives without this
ending, similar forms in V J. are derived, a. g. v£f;a£ "happy" (along with
*&o3.) from l~>*% "health", "happiness"; ^a^ "warlike"; jfrJS,

0) The moaning of the word in Is. 16, 8 ia not quite certain : later writers
employ it according as they severally understood this passage.

§§ 130—131. — 79 —

AVji (§ 52 B) "strong" ; ^tp "painful"; ^»%»{ "indicating a q/yjm"
(Jyi^mi), &c. ,

' Specially in favour arc adjectives of tins form like ^i.oitt "in-
telligent"; .Lre-^jl "angry"; &B>ota "crafty" (from Jmjos, mfpoj, like
itoj.aU "to l>e cunning"); v i.i.aiJ "anxious", and many others. In these
cases no Abstract noun like !%^o.ia> can any longer Ire pointed to as
the fundamental form; and with the most of them such an Abstract
noun has never existed.— So too, liU n^ " 1 ) "flatterer" 0«? ' ft} "to

flatter") C).

§ 130. Farther, Nomina agentis may he formed by the suffix * »»•»"
from all Participles which begin with m: and so participles from Peal
are alone excluded. Thus |L&Ajuo "one who praises" (from ^A**>);
(ijof^o "enlightener" («u»p); W^p? "one who provokes" («y*f)i
)! f~.iv. "tempter" (l«ai*>); )iAi^a& "one worthy of praise" (a*a^*&);
(lijjiiKA "one who has to be ordained" (p-j»1.6op), &c.

In some traadriliterals the m thereupon falls away. The ascertained
cases of this sort are Juo^jl. "interpreter" (along with (Isa^tjoo);
(ijovajf. "braggart"; )»■&»»! "bloody" (together with '^ — (otherwise,
however, byojjojo "refractory", &c).

§ 130". The following appear to he formed in In: jl-sai. "file" ™> «"»■
(from ifm "to rub down"); (ul»" "turtle-dove", f. (Wisai; \i^iaax,
"lark"; )uj^o "hoar frost" (not quite certain; a secondary form is (ijt-j),
and a few others. Of. § 132.

DIMINUTIVES. !>«"«-

UVOB.

§ 131. Diminutives are formed at pleasure with mi: a. g. (iajiAao witn ir«.
"mpdns"; ISoo^ "minor god"; liaaka "little book"; lia^J "little
hoy"; ]bi\j* "little* son", &c— Feminines take IN.J6 (§ 71, 1), e. ij. U}Sv
"ship" (f.): ikJdfiSj; it-JcusJ "little ear"; ifc^Jo^o "small stone";
IkJaffljA. "a little bed". I of the feminine termination is retained he-
fore this 'suffix: ikJoki.jJo "small town"; ifc-wLfi. "a small church";
lt^36).v^{ "a short letter", &0. However, we have (KJ<i^ "ane-

(') On the termination uli v. infra § lSli.

— 80 — §§ 132—135.

ramie" "little bride" from !k^J>) anil bai.^s. (to bo. pronounced no
donbt :is JioXj^j.) "ourriele" from IkN,;^ , From the pi. JL'xi (ssg.lk3*ag)
appears in tins way IjclS^o "short words".

§ 132. Bern, «» may also bo a Diminutive suffix: b-iJs], secondary
form to bojjsj "small bird". Yet it is not to be bebl as altogether
certain.

§133. fftft os. Not so frequently met with as on: tbns is. ij.
JLajQ^jJ "liatelict"; irouu "small fish"; j™~~~ "little boy" (witbmit
any ground-form in use); Lcod.A^ "little boy", &c. — Feminine forms
have (&j»6, pi. iViooo (§ 71). 1 of tbe fein. termination falls away before
tbe suffix: JKasoj; "small court" from (Uj; {t,,cfoi!^"smafl garden" from
JkiiL; !Miba4_-'i. "small bowls", "cups" from JK^J^.; JkaacuaA
"little girl".

§ 134. Bern. I K M ■*; a 6 Sbpfo/O) from i^i^a^ likewise appears
to be a Diminutive. Besides these we still have traces of other dimi-
nutive-endings, notably in secondary forms of the more familiar
names. Compare farther § 112, as well as Diminutives formed by re-
duplication of the 3 rd rad. § 122. Add thereto, although not attested
by very old authority, IK^iM, "a little hill", pi. it>v\n\l, from JJL
"hilV'C), alongside of lU^aXl.

WITH Al
§ 135. With- di (wi, JLL-I, IK,...', &c.) corresponding adjectives ( a )
'' were formed at pleasure, from substantives, and more rarely from other
nouns ; notably national appellations. Thus e. y. JLJjoJ "fiery" from IjoJ ;
J'&N-y "kingly"; i.k*? o/fflfoj; U-VJ-, [JLLijo^w "foreign" from U&-
"foroign country"; JL^oaj "foreign"; ).S'^j-> "naked" (from the adjective
^£p>.); JLi^j "external"; JJ&JL "internal"; jL{ oj^ "alone" (from the
adverb joj£>-); JUV.J "belonging to", "proper" (from ^-} § fill), &c—

(') Is )nn», HtM (in Arabic dress jlsj) "street" jU/n) by any chanco an old
Diminutive from Uai "broad street" Tkarela}

( 2 ) This mode of formation for the derivation of appellatives was much less
Frequently employed in remoter times than it came to be in later days, in the scho-
lastic style of learned translators and imitators of Greek writings.

§ 135. _ 81 —

Jila- "Greek" (noun and adj.); Ufc^i "Alan"; J4o&: "Jew"; ^o^o*
"Hindoo" from the Persian MimKi; Jiojix. "man of Kardu" from Qardft, ;
JLoi^a "Parthian" from J'urllntii,.

From the feminine l^.=viy "old woman", UiK=H» "old-womanish";
hut from iii^so — Ul-^o, woXmras; and thus appears M*»4 &fo»J
from lk, P i«, o L

From )UNV "night" (§ 4i) A); U^-, l>ut also J*r*^
From plurals are formed: JUJu "effeminate" (fciJ "women" § 146);
IL&jo! "maidenly" (ll*x>l "maidens" § 146); ^<5ti{ "fatherly" (!o£{),
together with JU^i "patrician"; ^4»[ "motherly" (lUSpiJ § 146); Jj<fca»
"nominal" (I*»jL). Of. with these § 138 A. Similarly U2»ai "rustic",
from JiVojj (§ 146).

From lUli "booth", and |l<ct^"banislmient", arc formed t-aii
"host", "innkeeper", J^X^, "exile", "outlaw"; so JjoU. (J^o**?) "be-
ginner". From lt-^o.4^/ "glass", U^*4j "glazier".

From name of month ^i *JUt*l "Tcshrin (as adj.)", or "autumnal".
So UaoJ-o "monk", especially "novice", from Madia noiwfiiav.

Final 5 or ai falls away throughout before the suffix. Thus U&ow
"Roman", from >*6«i P<6 W U»J« "cleric", "sacristan", from Koyw
("choir"); JU£o& "of Moses" from JU.oi; JLZiiJ "Ninevite" from lau;
)iv^ |? frnn, H.<^ (name of a place); U\™ "from the convent nf*
Matthew" (-V» -**)• Similarly JUAJo! "of Bdessa", from -AWl; Ui?|
from "Affa/WOS; M(r** fr<™ ^P ^ "Samaria". But Ji&^'morthem"
from JLia^^.

Short vowels have fallen out originally at the approach ol the
suffix, to the extent required by § 43. Thus [in* "Persian", from
u»$# (which itself is of course nothing but a more convenient pronun-
ciation of Firs) ; U^~* "Babylonian", from ^; U»»J "Aramaic",
"heathen", from the original Aram 0); Vkv* "Arabian", "Arab" (still
with soft a, v. § 23 D) from 'Arm; U->i<^ "from Mausil" ; V&v^.

(') The -West-Syrian schools arbitrarily derived «4|l "Aramaic" from r jJ,
which is a copy of the Hebrew ffjjj, "^ they left the genuine JiM with the signi-
fication of "heathen".

— R2 — § 1^5.

"of Garmruf ; J-Mpi-^ "barbarian" from fi&pflapog; JLLa.*J[ ( a ^ (,11 g vl ' 1 ^ 1
k±jz.*.i{ §§ 42 and 52 B) "royal" from the royal name y*tf Arsitvcn;
JUaaj^. "from pdjL^" (locality-name) ; of. JlIq 000^0^' "from Damascus"
>onmw|; and Jujajako "from KasraraooAr/a". A like mode of formation
will probably bold good also in other cases, which we can no longer
settle: Thus the national appellation from j£o| is doubtless JJJaot, not
U&\, &c. But in other cases, the need of having the primitive word
clearly recognised may have had an influence here, — even at an early
period, — in defiance of phonetic rules. Thus JU&oX-; "from JJolihu".
From v^oAip come Ju^ji** and JL^o^ao.

More decided abbreviations we have in JUJj-.? from ^J-j (river at
Edessa), as well as from .^*j jja (Bardesanes) ; JU^-j from ^£*$ (Siclon);
llJ+Jl> "from Harran", ^jl»; UL=j_*jj (also JUrwp), from ^a-*p; JU^j^o
"from ^yi^p"; JLSta^Jo^ "from ^^■'v *o^".

The following are also irregular: U N, } rn »j "Israelite" from ^^m*!;
and JU^aaA-| "Ishmaelite" from \»^qjl*|.

As shown by several of the foregoing examples, the ending may be
attached even to compounds: thus, — to give farther instances — JLL^aaojg^
(late formation) iXs(pdvrivog, from )Ls jo( r ^^"bone of the elephant", i <>..
"ivory"; JUlLo»ju» "from JLi* »**»", &c. Yet along with these wo have
JL-J»c^j "Mesopotamian", from ^1©^ V^J J^j?°' QJ ) from Ijl^QJ V*T?i
J-k-^*- "overseer of the refectory" (fkajy. k*»); JLUj*j "of Bardesanes" —
v. supra.

Many names of cities form their gentilicium first from a form with
n. Probably the ending was originally audi, hut pronounced iitti in
certain words. Thus J-Jjd-u& "from Ijq-ujd", and probably JLtffc^j^jL
"from V*v^|j" (along with it, but occurring more rarely, JLI^^JL). —
From Jap'tJ? comes jLooio^ (probably Kartnondye).

In the gentilicia of foreign names of localities, the forms of the
foreign language are sometimes made perceptible, e. g. JLijo^ "from
oi^p", after the Persian form Marwazi; jLA-Ji "from —J", after the more
ancient Persian form Hdgtk. — Many more transformations too, which
cannot now be checked, appear assuredly in such gentilicia.

With unat.
lOOl'O

§§ 136. 137. — HH —

One Abstract noun in *', wliicli however is perhaps of different origin,
is Jl^tfc, more rarely JL^j-?**-> "lilaino" (constr. st. t^.£»)-

§136. The compound, made up of an (§ 129) and Hi, which we
had even in the ffcntMcia, appears often, and especially in the more
scientific diction, in derivatives from appellatives: the I of the fern, is almost
always retained before it: Thus JUJjai "fiery"; Mtt»i ifvyiaSr, Uib*
mO/*amiaSf, Ul\t*r "ecclesiastical"; U%I* "yearly"; U!Ki>a£
"blessing" ; WLadi "begging", &o. : With the falling away of the feminine
ending, however, in JLiiijL*. "chain-formed", from tk^J*.

As in oven by itself is used in this way— which assumes a -
before the feminine ending,— it is not always certain whether, for instance,
a form ending in |ko- is to be read^JLi or (KJJ- There are
actually found variants like iLAjJj and ( W| fafyms (?•) Jas. 3, 15.

WITH % Y.

§ 137. These forms are, it may be, of much diversity of origin; in with "., ,
part of them at least the I may have been originally identical with that
which has coalesced with another ending into the ai of the preced-
ing sections.

To this section belongs the i of feminine forms like It-i^-jj, M*°^-/> & c -
(§ 71). So, farther, we have !^~>6.ij "boo", pi. !k»«=»J; ikJaioo
"swallow"; l»-Aof "dog-fly"; ik-S*" "female snake" (M<^ "snake'', pi.
Uoa^i § 79 A); (K»&£a> "dinner"; !kJ*=> "streets" (§ 21 C); l^4V*
"cancer"; ! *■■*-*■ J "shivering fit in ague"; !MW> "a breaking out";
ItojDota "a breaking out"; lUaoAJ, IfciaoAVj "bubo (in the human
body)"; !M*»*" "purple"; Ik-aJ^ "stomach of ruminants"; !k-°V>-
"shivering fit in ague ; ttJU^f. "dame" ; ll.ji»¥ "baptism" ; lt^b-*x»
"flute" (and others of this form), &a.

Farther, many masculino abstract nouns, like Uaa^j "robbing" ;
JLboo^i "oppressing" ; M*«>l "fettering" ; JULoaaw "overturning" ; Heaa*.
"embracing"; JUXa^"forination"; JLUo£} "sadness" (»), &c.

Perhaps also words like JUaj^'north" might belong to this class.

(') Some of the Syrians have foolislily turned the form )!=■"!, "affliction",—
fashioned according to this section-into a form Ji*«S I , as if it had the Greek ending fa,

other word-
forming

_ 84 — §8 I3B. IS!).

WITH UTH.

§ 138. A. This suffix serves to form Abstract nouns from nouns of
all kinds (for inflection v. §7(i). Thus e.g. !Lo.ii.» "kingdom"; lloiij^
"heroism" ;ILoJL;J '■inheritance'' ;ltolo^» "mortality" ;lLai^& "ox I on in lily",
■'exterior''; 'IoaX "goodness", "good"; {In.iN^; "properly, attribute'';
lloXajalLaso "abandonment" (from ^A^a& unwell tlt/t'lilix from jaik..*'
-was abandoned" § 13(f); 'laiiX^k.so "revelation"; 'LoXajup "e.oiiKont"
(.q«l). &c. So even 'loJ&ca. fio»' oiKovo/tia. The extension of this
mode of formation is unlimited: particularly in seientilio diction new
examples are constantly appearing. Many of these forms, however, are
very old. such as lLn\ .% x#p/£; Un^.np "extreme old ago"; 'lo^sa-ot
"belief, their primitive words being no longer extant. Inliiiilives in o -■
also belong to this section (v. — 'Verb'). From plurals are formed 'tooVi'
'•fatherhood'', alongside of (loJal "imtrociniUM" , and {Loopoi "maiden-
hood'' (cf. herewith § 135).

B. Prom roots tert. w there are formed 'lo-o-ii. "equality" (from
Jojl, iio-»); Jlaiof "purity"; UoJU^ "magnificence"; {LaJj) "foniic.ation"
(from (i), JLtjJ); (lo-j.^» '■childlessness", and many others. Hut, along-
side of these, there are other forms also which follow a more ancient
method,— that of omitting the last radical: iLaA) "innocence" (from JLpJ);
Slo""^, '■banishment"; Hot* "a meal"; Jloia "petition".-- In Ito-i;
"form", and 'toaj "tiling" (§ 76 B), and likewise in llo^y. "correction"
(°!«""?j ^°!V¥)i H-aiUsp "censure"; ftojijsijo "watering"; llopo "light";
(IoKajo "banquet",— it is not quite certain whether or not the ubstraol-
sufiix belonged originally to these words: and the same question arises in
the case of JloxM. "atonement", and Hamsol. ''corruption" ($ 127),

§ 130. TRACES OS OTHER WORD-FORMIN'I SOTWXES.

Traces of suffixes, like am, el, n QuJUaA "Ilea") air still repeat-
edly met with, but the words concerned no longer form on established
class, and they may bo regarded as multiliterals.

§§ HO. 141, — B5 —

FOREIGN SUFFIXES.
§140. The suffix op/of, current in liit.ni' (Jriwk, lull originally i'™
Latin, — which appears in several words, likui^ia fjavuiplla: '•Imltl-niimlrr",
mid sonic others, — lias also been joined to Urn Persian hill :i il< >pl ■••!
word Jio^JjbJ "pillar", the Persian JUa-jL=> "falcon", anil Ilic plll'l' S.M'iiii'
la^N "ship", thus: lyo^jnj srvXfnjS; lt-«W*5> "I'aloiinor"; lt-a^s "ship
master". The Persian han is added to the Syria.c. Ipaj-. ••ass"; Jxx>ptL~
(properly hjsjjoi,) "ass-driver", and to the (frock bo^o miTXV;
(iAjq^-lo "chamberlain". So, in addition, we have ... i AN. q..^p fttrpvx-
%ys fi'om the Syriac llr, . ^ "a, bunch of grapes". HYoin >^k.A.{
"played" is formed, after the fashion of < J reek words like sCOr/Mn nr

aa^vpeia, UiiA*! "a same". Of. JLu»-£jx>j "luxury", "winitii ss"

[I Tim. 5, (i] aTpyp>o; (or rather a secondary form mil yd, il is Iran,
otherwise authenticated — orpr^sta).

(!. 0( IMPOUNDS.

§ 141. Several words, regularly and closely associated in u gouiliu-
connection, are treated as a single word, and attach In their second '
member those endings, which the first (standing in (lie ennsir. si.) should
have received. Thus Kf. (constr. st. of (W "grniind" § l-lii) lumiH Willi
'%■"{ ftd. 1«|) "wall" a firm compound {KxcliL* "I'nundnlinn". of wliieli
the plural is IrSlk.*.; from this quite a new vcrli then nriginales, u»kjt
(also written ias!k«.) "he founded". So too are. treated several eoinpoiiiids
of *"? "house", e.g. Ijaauo K^ "tombs", "graves linill inside": fcs*=>
Ua^a "storehouses"; J-JX. K^> "houses of nativity", ;'. r. "cnnslolluliiius
of nativity" (ysvfos/j), &c; and also other compounds, sueli as U^y-,
("lord of..."?) "enemy", J -^NnS "enemies". ^-.J. ^s-1 ••I'euinle
enemy", Iti a^ "enmity"; JLi-^ auj "hegiiiuings of n nmnlli" ; jux
l)a% "eapra month", "steinhoe.k", pi. i;o^ jip^ '•slcinhucU"; (-^ jo*.
"wild goats"; JLjy^ "sentence" ("judicial decision"), p|. |Lf»}SjL ;
Jf^p jaauo "punishments"; and thus also several nlhers. iIuiukIi
not a great number of them, - while, in eases quite analogous, H„.
ordinary procedure is followed, e.g. (li l^ -/ill,, fori*", i. v. -word".

G sudor of
BUOll

- 86 — §§ 142—144.

pi. ILoios, and so with all compounds of vj "son" and Lj^» "daughter",
however close the combination may sometimes he.

Some compounds show a more decided blending of sounds. Thus,
for instance, J ? i™7 "pillow" ["cushioned couch" — "jmlviimr"], pi.
Ilolmc. (§ 79 A), of winch the first portion is equivalent to k*s, while
the second is a form nearly related to ijjoo! "foundation". So Jl^i^
'mime of a tendon' — SJ^J "M; li-J-kjoA fcivoiaO, 1> l It**" 01 ' 0V01L
!»».l.aJ-D "navel" — f(£- Lalij "basis (?) of the navel", and some others.
Cf. § 125.

§ 142. The second member of such compounds determines even

iou»a"™ the gender and number. Thus Jki*. 1-a "domus (m.) sahlatis (f.)"
i. e. "refectory", and Il.oli.j K*s "chapel", "house of prayer" are fe-
minine: Jsoa- ' "tg^? "half of the day", "mid-day",' is used as masculine:
li.iL asl "face (f. pi.) of the door (m. sing.)" — "curtain" is always
masc. sing.

communal § 143. A special class is formed by nouns compounded closely with

JJ "not", like iLti^i JJ "immortal", f. illa^Sa (J, pi. (Laii )», ittaao (J, &c.;
itoti^o )U "immortality"; |K.LJtio )j "non-arrival", &c.

ii.ma.kon D BBMABK ON THE TREATMENT OP GREEK

tlio treat-

m.nt of PROPER-NAMES.

Greek

proper- g ^4 Greek proper-names' in o$ and «£ are used either in the

nominative- or vocative-form: ino rTvnff ; iflDoV-^; tfiDotfima^s; icojol
(0eu3Sj), &c.; or (used, however, also as subject &c.,) )ias>; i^a;
(l ^maSS ; !fofo[L; IJol;,, Jao^Sl; &a. The East-Syrians however write J—
for this I— "and !— , or even l-f- without any difference in the pro-
nunciation.

The termination 10;, bio; very frequently falls completely away:
sometimes there still remains of it a — : .aJaao alongside of i m . n .<a»
JftavpiKio;; ^a^ 'lyvanog; ^.m->, ^jojb, u N . m La BaoiXsio;; oox.;,
■aojjj, <aju; Zy/vo^io; (also j»a^=>aj|;) ; ^o|), u^jo)) AsoVnoj, Ac. This
happens too, though much more rarely, with the simple o;, o. g. ma, as

( l ) Vocalisation not settled. .

§ 1«.

87 —

well as imo mo , |iu Bdaco; ; ^Jo^li 'Avrawvoj. Of course there are
found, besides, many deviations from the accurate Greek forms, -which are
not limited to the terminations.

E. ATTACHMENT OF THE POSSESSIVE SUFFIXES.

Attachment
of tha pos-
. , ,-. • s^sHive BUi-

§ 145. A. Tlie Suffixes enumerated in § 05 coalesce with tiie at fixea .

of the pi. m. into the following for

cms:

'my

•"thy (m.)"
'% tfO".

: lus"
; lier"

P

"our"
'your (m.)"
'your (f.)"

-oio-I (-010^. § 40 E) ("their (m.)" ^

f"thoi
{"the:

their (f.)"

Thus the same scheme holds throughout; only -wo— from aula
constitutes a deviation. Notice that the otherwise constantly soft ya of
the 2 nd pers. becomes hard after at.

Example: )S-j "judgment" (constr. and ahs. st. ,.»; pi.

Singular:

e**J,

i*i*f my judgment
yi»j thy (m.) judgment
u-^i-j thy (f.) „

o*i-| his ' „

6+i*> her „

-luj our judgment
(0-.ii-! your (m.) judgment

v^J-? your CO
(OoM-? their (m.) „

^oM-! their (f.) „

Plural:

uJj;j my judgments

.l.r.j thy (m.) judgments

o.i.*iii thy (f.) „

wofoju; his „

ovi-5 her „

^xi} our judgments
^qa.r:; your (m.) judgments
<Ji-ii! your (f.)
^oot^jp? their (m.) „
^o).r.-; their ff.) „

B. No difficulty of any kind is occasioned in attaching the suffixes
to any noun, of which the stem or ground-form (t. e. the form loft after
removal of the termination a) lias a long vowel— or another consonant

— 8R — § 145.

without a vowel — before the final letter, or ends in a double-consonant:
thus e. //., like Jju» given above, JjLaaX "garment"; ulqa\, yA.o.aX, ,
^ai-oaX; \'&£s*~$ "silver": u-am^ 1 ), ,oo»Ja.Q&.p ( 2 ) ; Ji»f "mother"; <-^o|.

The vocalisation in these cases is, throughout, the same as in the
emphatic State.

Mem. No difference of treatment is exhibited here between words
of the simplest formation with originally one short vowel, and those
with originally two short vowels. Like jAoti (from dalidrd), we have not
merely ysj 01 ?' ^ut il ' so t *^ 01 ?! ^?°^°'?( 4 )- If,-— besides — >U, \?°t>J-i foam
(jU (for atliara) "place", — <-*$i|, ^ootHJ are occasionally met with, it is
not the original vocalisation which is maintained therein, but one which is
to he understood as a method of facilitating pronunciation in accordance
with § 52 B, just as, with words of the simplest formation there, is
written also upon occasion u^jjlj (= o.i.i)J), ,d.a.io{, ^o©^?!.

C. This method prevails also with all terminations of the pi. f.;
and suffixes are attached thereto in the same way as to the singular.
Like j^.AV>p"que.ens" we read, for instance, ■—K.a^ao, jKA\» ; ^ooiKiOvo, &c.
It is the same with those of the pi. m., — with the exception of many
forms tertiae — for which v. infra, K, Tike JigSiy "kings", Jj©m» "wit-
nesses", we have ^~5^», wotciaVio, ,0. a. * Vs.v> ; wj^m, «*i.-.jcHJ»,
^OM»ot.m. &c.

D. Even with forms which have a shout vowel before the final
consonant, including the feminine termination ittli (U) the vocalisation
entirely resembles, for all suffixes, that of the emphatic state, with the.
exception of the l Bt sing, and 2 nd and :-} rd pi. Thus like JU "^•y "taking",
from cj.ocl». and {J^ft^p, from KJx\*9, so too y=j.m», ua,a,my, oya.my,
oia-oaap, »-» mag ; -jVoA*), u-sKA\io, 0^.0.^:*?, dtJ^a^p, A.nS^v*.

E. At the approach of the suffixes of the 1"* sing, and 2 nd and
3 rd pi., the short vowels before the final consonant are frequently retained,

(') Thus -r^a,, uV^.a, uXfl, UAA1, «»»; ; ulut^, u^-inl, uA>f I ; tA-t-Ji, rnnal^, &e.
(") Thus vO^MJUA, v OOM«ai. y^aASi, yQ^^-tl, yQOMJtal, &C.

( B ) Thus **L, «5X, vijiX, &,

(*) Thus m.3^J&. Of. farther yj*^, >,?°a^', -f**^, y*oif«a?, ^aJtXs,, &c,

§ 145, — 89 —

although in other cases they disappear, no doubt from the analogy of
the other forms. They are retained throughout, where there is no
feminine ending, except in the instances given under,): Thus .^rny
(J^m.so, o*Am» &o.) ; ua.mM, .o..^^.rnvi. ^aslOUo, ^oot.a.flCL», ^ imv, .
So us N^ny ''my burden"; — P?h*? "my s|)eech"; ^oo^ioi© "their seat";
uiaxij "my friend" ex.

K. u of the feminine-ending tilli disappears before these suffixes
|that is to say, the analogy of the eniph. state is followed], when the
middle consonant 1ms a short vowel; thus like &*al "vengeance", oi^al.,
and »K^1, ^ooik^l,; U}J$.» "watch", ^l^o; fK ^ a uv> "thought",
v 6oiKa.a^o ; {fivjmjLt "service", — Ka^a-L, ^AotkA^.l ; IKu n -» ■ I "praise",
— ^jjcl^jlI, ^ootl^Lth"* ■! ; U^J "a mother", -1^. ^a-sl,^- ; i'-*-^^
"throat", -li^^; ifc.Vo.sJbi> "eating", -JC^-as)bo, ^jstCS-aaHi, &a. So
k.a^"vine" (for JKIa,^), jOoiKfl^, &e.

Thus also with many, which have along vowel in the syllable preceding
the U. of the feminine: !K-uii "rest, pleasure", -K-uii; -K^a^ia "my
enemy (f.)"; vOoii,p»j» "their hair"; ^K=>-(.b "proxima men"; ,ootfc.»aii>,
"their synagogue"; ^oiiLJLJ "their first"; — l^-Jao, ^oott^-p "net";
-kjui, v oo,&.**=>, ^eiofcjLA "evil"; -ivoxim "my mare", — U-*> (also
written ~'lA**>, -Li^so, hut all to he pronounced m'lt) "my dead (f.)"
C§ 2(i H).

Where the long vowel represents a radical o or -, there is a good
deal of fluctuation. Tims ,oo)ki-po "theii' city", but -ki*;»; with
reversed procedure in -k.^ "my good", hut ^oiVj.^ ; -Lpo "my Lady,
mistress", as well as .tjv "my necessity"; — k.»j "height", — U; "court";
-fc-vi, ^K^i. "hour". With falling away again, vjotUoj "their form",
and with n ^oiK^jJb, ^aK^m "troop". In some cases the usage has
fluctuated. Thus ^oiloa-JD "tlieir treasure" with Bphraim, while in the
Bible tradition we have v aj>Kjo-a>. From jlji* "church" the Kast-
Syrians have -Lp». 'eoalli, the West-Syrians wlf%- 'it

(i. Til « is retained, when the middle consonant wants the vowel.
Thus iki. - ^, -^a\», v ootk..aV*>; -k*»? "tear"; -Kjioa, ^poikataa
"blessing"; -fcS»o>j?, .aafc^u) "fright"; -Ifool "riddle". Mo too -fcijf.,
v 6oifcCiJL$. "question"; v ooil.o(j, ^.al.o(j "fatigue"; -U,-£., ^1.0,1.,

— 90 — § 145.

(O^ioyZ. "joy" (from MlwetM, or lialidlut § 40 D. 101), &o. Tims also
with diphthongs, like -k*>ajj>, ,00^0.0 "stature"; ^a-ol^o? "quaking";
-icsai "guilt", &c— It is the same when the middle radical is doubled
in 'oases like fK^j "pleasure"; -K^j, \°oiK^J; -k*&, ^ocukivib
"word"; -tj^_ "garden"; -tju. "basis"; -tvJ>o>,'* ,ootkiof "pla.ee", fe.
IVi*. "sleep" conforms to these examples: —kif, .ooikxa,; while from
analogoias formations (§ 105) we have -ks], ^a-oksj "care"; wKaail,
,6oikj*jS (for which, however, the old poets have (Ooik-sijl, ^i-stx^).
So —&.*>! "maid-servant"; -lj_C, ^oiIj-l. "end"; ^ooika.J "basis".

H. The feminines of derivatives from tcrtiae - present no difficulty.
K^I., 16 are there retained unaltered: ■ A a. a^ \.x.. "prisoner (f.)";
-K-^o "city"; w^jot "praising"; -Lxoi "conversation"; vjoi^oi^
"escort".— -LeLuao "stroke"; »L6^.j, ,6-otiVj "prayer".— Similarly, of
course, with those in M, and abstracts in la_L.

J. Forms which end in J- in the abs. st. sing, preserve their voca-
lisation before the suffixes of the 2" a and 3* a sing, and the 1" pi. thus,
k»*>, JUoai "pious"; licoSai "throne": a^caXt , . ■ *>?. - , 'mint.
it ImioA, &c.

Uflria£ (constr. st. ufipiai), JLjjup "camp", JL'Kmo "drinking" form
with the suffix of the 1" sing, ojpiai, «fc»ip, -V 1 *- In otlle1 ' casoa
those which end in U in the emphatic st. have u», whicli is eithor not
pronounced at all, as in East-Syrian, or, as in West-Syrian, pronounced
as a simple i: sometimes only one simple - is written instead of the two:
>~ a ! (*^*l § 17) or o^JJ "my meditation"; u-^.^ or u^% "my boy";
1— a^or i*-44 s ," m ine elect"; i..a nt» ,"my suffocation"; c^-i.5, ■■ ■•; '
"my shepherd". If the JL stands after a vowel, the suffix is then at all
events silent; thus from )A>jja "creator", >-ojJ>; from LSys "call", u^d.

The - of the suffix is in like manner silent after I as final radical:
-lias "my consolation"; w)u» "mine enemy, [my hater]"; and so -^i
"my lord" (— — Ijjo).

Before the suffixes of the 2" a and 3" a pi. we have, in accordance
with § 40 G, <oo».J{; ,001-Aa^. "their confusion", &c. So too tlio
West-Syrians have ^oot^jop, ^.jj-Ajup, &e, while tlie East-Syrians have
^oo) t ^y , v o.iv*£|u^p, &c.

F. List of
anomalous

§ 146. — 91 —

K. In the pi. short adjectives may treat the radical y as a strong
consonant, but tliey may also fashion shorter forms: l oJ>— ii "those who
soo yon", alongside of ypot-"-'^ ■ "their captors", ^v^ k "our captors";
— oio-tti. "those who drink it" ; — oio^mi and ~otn m i > "his pious ones" ;
. ,^q .n.^ and — 5ioi»-£ "his young men". Pure substantives have always
the shorter form: i^ai, ni .svi, 6)-^a5 "bowels"; ^on'i^'eahdi ejus",&c.
So Uaj "heaven" : £'--f, &e. Compare with all this § 73.

L. Greek words in neo of, o-l oi (pi.), im-L a;, &c. do not take
suffixes (§ 225). — J^yk-j o/a^m? takes suffixes, as if it were a plural,
without however "being construed as a plural: w«a^;l^.} "his testament" ;
y.K-A.; (sg. f.) &c. In the very same way occur c . in . % , ^.ot ninv'^ "my,
his price" from )in.^ r//«J as a sing. fem. Perhaps there are still other
Greek words in tj, which are thus treated.

F. LIST OF ANOMALOUS NOUNS.

§ 146. Joj "father" 1 bOmU-

jij "brother" end properly in u: *» J*

J^oa> "father-in-law" J
Accordingly wo have yaaj, "•?<>■=!, -"!*»{. oioaj, ^=|> \?f a 7>i>
^»aaj, vpoioaj, ^JtoaJ. So' yaij, -owi.{; oj.a^, 6«ua.o, &c. But,
u.L\ "my father", o-ul d "my brother", t>sai "my father-in-law". Abs. and
oonstr. states are wanting.— PI. JLpJ (^XflJ, ,*££&{, &c), but iotai or

JlLi "sister" (without conBtr. or abs. st.); -W, v 6cxKji, &c; pi.
|Liii(.— !Kii> "mother-in-law" (plur.?):

&{ "mother"; u»[, ot£[, &c; pi. H*sb[.

^a "son"; emph. st. !(,=.. With suff. y^a, ot^a, ,Jp, &c, but -*»,

^oafa, vjcxW?: pi. Uj=, ^=>i Hr*> with suffl v?*** 3 ' &c ' ,

' Ylja "daughter"; wanting abs. st.; constr. st. £»; ylva, otljla,

^tvj, &c; but -L^; pi. 1^*, <^, ^ (^^. &"•)•

"jjlj, J&a. "name"; ota^, yi*, uaa*, ,jj}M*, &c.; pi. l<3t&Ji.,
and Uiwkii.

y>l )&} "blood"; »»), uaof, vjopof ; pi. J»>.

— 92 — § 146,

JJ; "kind, species"; constr. st. v j (West-Syrian V J); pi. Ja/, ^J),
oj)', wotoj/, etc. An early naturalised Persian word.

(ft "mamma"; i»;L; pi. Jbjl, Cjl, ^.o^jl.

If-| "hand" (for tq'. §40 0); constr. st. ,-, particularly in trans-
ferred application and adverbial use (,-= "by means of", "owing to";
''°H tt ^S> "''.V t'l 11 rida °f the river", &c), and rJ (substantively); thus
before suffixes: — v °oi r |, - r |, yf.1, &0. (^oi^a "through llieni": In
West-Syrian appears indeed the artificial formation otf-^ (!V' auroii). PI.
J?N> 'r'i' "St 2 !' "N : witu su fix, woiof.1, &c. Uoifi-i (East-Hyi'ian tlotii'i
"handles").

iAa*. "heaven"; ,oa* (§ 73), too*., ^»iojl, &c: Tn form always
plural.

J% "water"; ^ao, £*>. With suffixes, at pleasure either do,

^och^o &c.

jk«.J "ground, bottom"; constr. st. km., Bast-Syrian &.*., (almost
never occurring except in combinations like !Kro! km. "foundation";
!?J°i ^+ "waste from storehouses"). With suff. otka.{, ^ooiK*.!; PI. (LKjU ;
and with suff. ,ooil.ki.|; and also ^otiRJij "their seats", &0.

!M*. "year"; alls. st. JU.; constr. st. W (doubtful whether used
with suffixes): pi. JUjji,, ^JU., ojlS.; with suff. ^jjljL, &c.

!&.»! "maid-servant" (probably without abs. or constr. state); wKsol,
«k.»l, &c. — ^owoj, ^osLohS!.

'VW "Iip" ! aDS ' st - JV"; constr. st. Kaj»; oik.Afl>, Ac. — Haaaj.

't*?' '^? " sili<i ' face "i °iy$- Defective parts supplied from J&!
"face", ^A{, oil; -Sail, &c; (properly Dual of anp "nose" § 28).

!i!{, itj (better |l|j "lungs". PI. lUtl;: according to others (per-
haps more correctly) ll&t'i, i- <•■■ KJJJS1.

_&*»_ "house": abs. st. ua (§ 2G 0); constr. st. K*a; »L, &c. :
pi. Ikil, ^8», — kal: (Oot^ika, &c.

!tki{, ilAli (two different modes of writing down the same pro-
nunciation of the word atta, ato) "woman": constr. st. lAii- Aksl &o

§146.

93

PL JUu, i" 5 j, -' :m y, *°<h*^, &°- — As a diminutive, appears (Kiiaiu "little
women". Sing, of this form is said to lib J^.*j6Kj(.

uu|, <mj "one", rig ("man") ; pi. ^£i{, ^Jkj "several", "certain" nvsg.
The enroll, st. JUuI signifies "man", "of human nature", but much more
frequently it boars the original collective sense, "men" or "people". It
is never i'ouml in the enrph. st. in the plural ; but in the eonstr. st. ami
with suit, it is found only in the pi.: !tx.jja uju! "the people of the
town", &o. ; — otojul "his people", &c. "Man" is more accurately ex-
pressed by "son of man" or "a sou of men" uut t^, ^i™?', J-*^ H?>
bai^a; pi. JUu! OJL3, JLsiiiia. Very rarely we meet with ^Jij? >a "man";
rarely with US l£j "woman".

J X s * , li>.V or ) •' ^V, JLJ^J- (§ 411 A) ; there is no eonstr. st., and
it is almost never used witli suff. Abs.st. is (L^. (for which |l^i>. is often
improperly written, § 16 C. Rem.) and u\. \ (^S^ not so good) in the
combination )o^o-4 oN 'N "by night and day" (§ 243), also "the space of
a night and a day". On rare occasions the words are found in reversed
order ^..N, psoj. PI. il oSv S , ^nSvS ,.

Jl2(! "lion" (for ««"lg) ; no eonstr. or abs. st. PI. {tt.'»J, \?->|-—
Fem. itd.ll "lioness" ; pi. no doubt i^i-'jl.

ILo^o (for NnNIBjJ) "encumber"; pi. U!gj>, ^Jjb, and later form
(as if we had in this case the abstract-ending !).a_) il&^J?.

U& (only used of tied and of Christ), and l^> (-= KN1B) "master,
lord" eonstr. st. Itj2>. A secondary form of the eonstr. st. mm appears
to present itself in lo£fc\ po Rpic. 41, 15, and oven ic*\. po in the ancient
Inscription ZDMG XXXVI, tab. 1,8 — ioi^. !yS> "the lord of the gods",
i. e., Zens ('). Abs. st. wanting; wpo, Mb, (joijjo, Ac. ; pi. Ju-j» and more
rarely i-ji, ^-ji, <-•$£ ; with s\ifl'. .oo^-ji, &c; or oven lU'jao, ^ji (but
hardly a corresponding eonstr. st., or corresponding forms with suffixes). —
Fem. !tpi, 1$S>, -Ipo ; Ibi-i, &c.

IK-^o "city, village"; abs. st. lya; eonstr. st. k-*oj, also fc-^j;
with suff. utup, o(^-^o, &c. ; pi. (the collective) IIioJ> ; eonstr. st. u-j>o_o ;

(') In V»ap« Euseb. Church Hist. 396, 5 (but the manusoript is of the year
462) we have before us no doubt merely a short-band mode of writing. The phrase
intended must have been the common one, marc khol.

— M — § 147.*

no abs. st. PI. with suff. (1) j^'tM, ^o^iaj}, (2) more frequently yl'iaA,
o^Vcus, (ij^joj), &c. — As secondary forms of tile pi., Jki^c and <mjia£
(§ 89, end).— Of. liesidcs the purely artificial imitation Itirpo ki&Lo
mumohsig ["village-towns", or "country towns"].

!^> "ass" ; pi. J-^u, but also (when a collective, like JLSo^) j ap ■•■
With suff. oc^xi, (jotpajl, &c.

IkW "folk"; pL ll&ii>|, voabj; in isolated cases, il&soo!, ^omo!.

%i, L&%, f. l^-^i "young" forms, as an adjective and also in the
meaning "servant", in accordance with rule, ) i v^, . vv^ ...v-; ;
woiiA^ ("his young men"), &c; IK2^, ^J, «*ikl£, &c; but in the
meaning "boy", "girl": jy^£, ,j;N^ (it is a matter of question whether
it has suffixes in this meaning) ; ik I S '^. In like manner J^o "pioco (of
bread)"; pi. \£o: and JL'ji "breast", with llo$Z (§ 79 A), as well as JL{Ii.

Uo{ "Hke"; pi. f. emph. st. iiJoj, pi. m. JLioj, ^o\. The other forms
are doubtful.

^A "alius": JW; f. JUi^u? (Bast-Syrian: j£i^?); h~i\J; jljj;
<fyJt J *'. P%"?i r^'W- *Jtvf> IV 1 *"*^

ai "great", "master", &c; Jij, t^aj, &c. PI. "great, tall, grown up",
<**•!' v *?'°l' V°j; rr > ' ^ *^'»'*j, ifcoi'oS— "great ones": (i=>>o»,
H^M' t^'oj; v? *^' !! &0 -; f - vOoikiiAVot, &c — "teachers": JSij,
tjj^j, &c. In close combinations, in pi. collate, st. we have, uaj': usi
't*9 "householders"; pivi ui»V "high priests", &c. — In very rare in-
stances we may even come upon a singular Jaioj, (used as an Adjective):
Probably the forms Jb> &c. never occurred as plurals in the earlier times.

So ^xSfof, ifyi? "small" (pi.), of which the singular in use is *da*j.
The sing. »s£s? is very rarely used indeed.

From JJ\&JJ "roofing", the West-Syrians form u^£*>, the East-
Syrians nSS$ y, as if it stood u^$*> : thus they treat the word exactly
in the way which is usually adopted with forms med. gem. (§ 59).

§ 147. We might mention here also one or two nouns of vague
meaning :

JBfi "something" (exceedingly rare, yi Vjiw ), indeclinablo : a lator
pi. however is JaSfA "things",

~§ 148.

95

^a "11 certain one" I'. t-i_"^3.
^s5 (Kant-Syrian) and ^vsj (West-Syrian) "»
from ^J (vJ) (v. § 146) and till! above-mentioned ^s.

certain number"

3. NUMERALS.

S !-!»■

H.

CARDINAL

NUMBERS.

Lrirst Decade.

in.

f.

m.

f.

1.

.£

it"

(i. ikm,, iW

V*

2.

>

^t>L

7 - J*W

%Li

8.

ȴ*>i

^J-

8. Ulil

tiil

4.

¥«»!

•oi.il

9. Jb»*l.

M 1

5.

ja*^

(JUOJL*

10. Iya%.

^r^

Cardinal
numb or s.
Leading

Mem. Jjj-u*jE» "some"; f. IJSJjJ-uj-u, may be regarded as plural of f£».

E. The numerals 11 — 19 show secondary forms of many sorts,
and fluctuate in their vocalisation. Various modes of expressing the
vowels, which are occasionally found, are very doubtful or to be rejected
altogether.

Second Decade.

11. ^mx^

12. t-n^K

13. tmv^l
14 Vm^'iO

15. j mv>v>r. (')
16.(')

; m\ kshail, commonly

;.rn . „v IS. ail (i-oaxKij!)
j.{yi -v. &.*&.£>

(East-Syrian tmi.^^.
and Sja^Jj^A.
West-Syrian |m^Uut

f.

lysa^fcjj. (t^m^j^J.).

jymsail (j-^ms^ij) and

fcfeflBA Ka>l (rarely).

(Bast-Syrian (vmxL&£.,
West-Syrian f yjn*. Ikjt.

( l ) Known to tho author only from grammatical tradition.
(*) In all expressions of the numeral 16 attested by ancient authorities («-
ta'mr, ktta'eirl; ittha'sar, lithu'lcre; (eJSta'sor) only one 1 is taken into account:

96 —

§149.

17. »,m\*j m. (rarely)

18. ;jxu*jl»J. (rarely)

19. }tr>\ ? l (rarely).

0. Tens, The tens

20.
30.

». fr >^.^A. a ,a., coram only

j j a ^ tvaufci, commonly
j-ftivKJU.
are :

j 60. -&*,.

l -jtn\Z* ■ (1-^m^.jfc) &

iyms N^ji (rarely).
t ymsi^ l (fymsivtl).

tf-T" 1

70. ^=.«.

80. ^Jbol, also written ^.bjol.

90.-

40. ^i»|

50. ^ g in 1 ( an. ^

100 is !l» (J|ii., ijif y. § 43 E).
200 is <.ijao (others ,.ll*>).
300 is JJii^JL, jsc.
1000 is .2.*,.
10,000 is aaj (better perhaps daj).
Prom |J» appears in the emph. st. iljrao "one hundred", pi. ilojbs.
So iaS> from .aSK, pi. ^vti\\, J4$>, ("); and !la=j from aij; pi. ^iij,
(lai'j. The plurals of .aS^ and ui are joined, exactly like other sub-
stantives, to the numerals from 2 to 9, which are placed before or after
them, in order to form a multiple of 1000 or 10,000; e. if. *-£&> Jb.~»jl
4000; JUuaji JaSs 5000; juaji lliaj 50,000.

E. With the larger numbers the higher order always comes first:
Ifuo ^yaio Ili^jSj, 421 (f.); k»o ^(iilo (Jit^.1, 386 (f.); J^~ ;
iiaj«.o ^.fc^lo U»&i>.t,o <~aSS, 7337 (Ezra 2, 65); j^U-; ,kss,
1017 (2,39); ^^*j (JboJ^to ,$. JhaSvo v iaj JbjaSi, 42,860 (2,(14);
Hi \s,aJ!o ,»fC^ •fcaijo ^.iaa^, 54,400 (Num. 2, 6), &e.
jrnmi wiiii § 149. The numbers from 2 to 10 yield spocial forms with suffixes,

BUfflXQS.

to indicate groups:

accordingly we meet sometimes also witli ; — a *", m—a ^ -f f l-f * K -I the last the f.
of eSta'8ar and certainly to he pronounced eUa'sere or eSta'esre. — The form usual in
print **p*.l&jfc, 1-^mxLK* (after the analogy of ,-pp\ \t«, &c.) appears to be met
with only in pretty late manuscripts.

( a ) The pronunciation of the secondary form tiaSs, is uncertain. Perhaps UaV

§§ 150—152.

97

rf'i, "we two"; ^o-a-Vi. "you two"; ^6of*VL "they two".
number alone lias in addition a feminine form used
meaning ^ot.*l»)L, &o.

This
l this

3. ^6ofJ^-L "they three"**)

7. .6o^Kb.^.A.

4. ^povJS^iiJ

8. lOO^KlxisL (?)

5. v 6&t.-&v.Aia^

9. v 6oukiJtL (?)

6. ^oop.J.Ka,

10. <6o+-l^mifc.

§ 150. The abs. st. of the rnasc. numbers from 2 to 19(?) appeal's
in the meaning of "the u ih day of the month" (always, to he sure, with
,prep. «a):

2. J-V^a( 2 ) "on the 2 nd day of the month".

3. JfiC^-fi^ "on the 3 rd day of the month".

Days of the
months.

4. !J^%

5. (K^agJXa

7. JK^AS

8. (fi^-oio^

9. iK^^a

10. ft; rnv>

11. (jjcns »,u&

12. ;;,m\;&o

13. ^m^6AK»

14. ^m^ajJLa

17. LaoAa *-»

§ 151. Another substantive-form is tl^a^.|t "the Twelve" (Apostles
or a similar company); otl;m^.|L "his Twelve"; also — fk.:^*! "quater-
nion", "four together", and \l\ mv. "decade".

§ 152. Eorms of the constr. st. in Aw- appear occasionally for
the purpose of denoting things which are closely associated: JKL^ao Ifrflafr.
"the ten cities" (ksKdiroXtg) ; JV-<^» ki^xa. §7rr&<nvpyog\ ^oo^^a^l^jt
"their six wings"; JLHo'j J^a^ "the four winds"; ^*>«- ^ ajt " a week";
6t*ai$ k^${ "her four points"; o^&j'a^ fcsi^Vt "liis four comers". —
For JL»a- V^l "the Hexameron (of the Creation)" JbocL. L&Jt? is doubt-
less better. From the somewhat forced formation 6t-^.^"j ^ 3 *| Tsrpd-
nobov there is current as pi. ^St-Sj.^j 6^>J or Jl^jj k^>|-

Another
8iibBtan-
tlvo-form.

poutnl c
prossion

(*) I give only the form* of the 8 rd m. pi. Notice the hardness of the 1,
which, however strange it may seem, ia 'quite certain.

( a ) Also <vi*», like *Xo>. — I give the vowels in those forma only in which
they are certain.

— 98 — §§ 153—155.

Other formations, of an artificial character and modelled on the Greek,
are V^a uSil (say Ji-Lo K/Sil) ovo<f>vairai ; Jj-oo- ^*->l djucfyorspoo^iog, &c.

ordinal § 153. ORDINAL NUMBERS.

numbera. ' .

1" JUi t o (also JifB, abs. st. pfo). 6" 1 JLi~K«. (W.-Syrian JLik-k*)-
2 nd Jt^l, f. (i-If jl ; more rarely 11*4,
f. (W(§ 71).

3» a )%1.

5* U JLSA*&^.

Sometimes this formation is carried still farther, and one says, for
instance, l\~^ ^*T" " tue 1B ""'; ) ;i 'j' TI > "the 20 th ". So even U>to.ij
"the ten-thousandth"; hut there are no such forms from !jko 100 or
.aSs 1000. G-enerally speaking, these forms are avoided in practice.

These are true adjectives. In the constr. st. they mostly signify

so-many-fold; e. g. ia^u^aj "with four wings".

otherforma § 154. Rem. From the simple numhers are formed, besides, deri-

fc'm' vatives of all sorts. Thus one or two fractional numbers, like !ki>-oL

»»»•»'■• ,< a t]lir(1 part " (m jivol. "three years old") ; J^aoi "a fourth" ; JUaooi.

"a fifth"; Juool. "an eighth"; \±M.al "a ninth"; Jjjatti* "a tenth" f). —

"We have also adverbs, like kjfc^l. "in the third place" (§ 155 A), &c,

and verbs like fc^-l "to do three times", &c. A strange formation is

given in 1-U1? "for the second time" : the termination is Greek in form ;

no doubt it was originally JJ^jJ-j, an emph. st. of ^Vil

i.mu«. 4. PABTICLES.

ADVEBBS AND CONJUNCTIONS.
Advuii. § 155. A. Adverbs of quality are sometimes expressed hy bare nominal

"™Z;. f°™s (in the abs. st.), e. g. **a* "beautifully"; olA "badly", "ill";
^vip "in vain" (which does not occur as an adjective); yap (eml)

( x ) In old authors I find only tkXol, J^aoi, Jju.*j*. For "a sixth" I find,
but only late, !Ua*. There is a quite recent form, after the Arabio Buds, J»]U or
plainly Ja]Ud,

§ 155. — 99 —

"completely", and a few more. To tins class belong the Feminine forms,
which in ancient fashion preserve the tli in the abs. st. used adverbially,
particularly k^t^j- "barely"; Kaj (others K=>») "very"; k*£ "actively";
ta^ "without eating"; la*, ami K..qjl "at the same time" ; ^JL? "finely",
"handsomely"; L«^-»^ "for the second time"; Lol^^-t "for the third
time"; and in Kaofaip ^o^ "to make a present of", "to bestow" (%api-
t,eadcci). So too IfrfrA "at last", and ^*»t-o "first". From the dt/atli of
these forms (f. of ai § 135) lias then sprung &.*t-^, the usual termination
by means of which Adverbs of Quality are formed from all adjectives and
from many substantives: KJ^a*. "beautifully"; JL^jjl. "truly"; k-.JLE.Df
"purely", "pure"; k+jLUZfcto "liidden", "secretly"; kJoCis "divinely", &c.
Notice K-)L£j^>I (Bast-Syrian fc-JLJ^f) "another way", (§ 146), and
&wj!_£*avj "little" (adv.) (K»|joJk.j also seems correct) with the y of the
f. (§ 71). — K*.* or even k- is sometimes written for %J> (§40E): fcw^^*.;
MjJL=> "justly" = K-JLvLo. In a few cases, a form occurs with the pre-
position a: — fio^Ja "lastly", "at last"; K*J^»6ott» "in Latin fashion";
KJIlS-ftufcJa "six-fold".

Farther, many words compounded with prepositions are used as
adverbs, e. g. t-^wV "thoroughly"; ^m-u*a.X "scarcely"; ^isA-cuxXj ( l )
"in truth", in rare instances ^Kao.dV and ^Kjboaa; ^Loi-ajO "first"
(vowels not quite certain). flxcb, 6tJ-uib (§ 156) "all at once"; f£ y-j,
t-w-^l, ffw wJ, ly**\ "at the same time".

B. Some adverbs of place and time, most of them being compounds
of prepositions, are as follows: —

"^^, "above".

Kw^-, K**lj ^9 "below".

^ftoiJ^,^), (^^**ft ^■* i ?^-) "downward".

jofao^. (East-Syrian, as it seems, jojloaV) "in earlier times",
"of old".—
So jojjoa^. ^>; and ^bjoja^., ^&}anX ^>(*).

■\da.D ^> "overagainst".

lk&, +.6, "now" (present time).

O Notice the peouliar plural-ending.

— 100 — § 155.

J«v>,v, **iop^ (vocalisation not quite certain) "up till now, liitlievto,

still".
^ Ji&o- "to-day" ; pl» "to-morrow" ; uA»l "yesterday" ; w^oKiio

"two days ago".
wt,j3k*.{ "last year"; <. * I ' « ivi\ , -■ ujb^ , .• ..^\ "next year". v»k:»£

"when?"; *;?-<>), y-t-^tO "then".
JLa*? "where?" (o-aJ "why?"): JLaot "here"; J&fc (— J-£ <*>), JLa&ot
"from here", "hence"; liaa^ "where ... from", "whence?"; JLaX
"hither", "this way", "on tins side" (^> loV); JA& lot ^> "from
tliis place" ; LoX-i "where ?" ; Ji\.(l "whither, where . . . to?" (these
two forms are found only in one old text); JLiSoi "here"; ^Jt
"here" ; ^1 "there" ; ,Jolf<St "yonder" : ^o+X "away there", "on
that side" (^ 'X).
"^~i& "now" ; ^*itx, ^-Jf*- "up till now", "still", "yet" ; ^-50)
"now", "thus".
■ jooKm, pokjo <8s, pokjai "at all times".
^aj> "already", "perhaps", "possibly", &c.
o^a "sufficiently", "already".
o$s> ^£> "already".

The phrases ojsba. jja ("son of lus day") "on the same day" (a
oik.*i "at the same hour" and cjjkma va "backward" (§ 32] B) are
used quite adverbially.

0. Adverbs of Quality of the most general kind; Connective Ad-
verbs, of which some have more special : significations of Space or of
Locality ; and pure Conjunctions :

^i' ^4*1 "how?"; y,'l "as" (and ita combinations: of. § 3(14) ;
^i«5i, Jiaoi "thus" (with Prepositions: ,-a<5t ilsA "thereupon"; ,-oi) ^>
"thereof, therefrom", &c), ia^i, "thus"; ,-p "thereupon"; with o, ^00
or *$k< <#9 <*? *%° "thereupon"; ^p '"^^j!) "on tliis account").— ,jfi
"thus". k*>Jp "namely". V3 ( a J (on very rare occasions heading a

( ) Also, v p4 £ "thenceforward", Sic. In the same way many more of tho
adverbs mentioned here may be combined with Prepositions.

C) In what follows, an asterisk (*) marks those particles which never, or
only exceptionally, stand at the beginning of the sentence.

§ 156. _ 101 —

clause) "tlms" ; *k*j> "tints". *>o.i. "thus". !*J oipa, aptz. *fa. "to wit"
(particularly in oitmg foreign remarks or tliouglits). *W^(') "for".—
JjJ "not"; a^ "not".

o "and", "also"; i3| "also"; ool. "farther", "again"; o! "or";
Vf°i "«'''-":— >>ir= "Irat"; %.» (properly "than") "tat". *^> fdv.—
*Jb, !*l "please!", "pray!".

<J " if "; a *S " if "; i = I! «j " ,mt "> "if not"; ^aj "although". jSf.
"until", "so long as". u a\. iSoK*.! "utinam".

» "that" (in the wiliest sense), and many prepositions combined
therewith: *s "at the time, when", "when" ; r s "whereas" ;,<>.£,.:» "thus"
(from f3 + /ouv); j ^> "since", and so with other prepositions (§ 360). —
; i_a "where"; j ill "whore"; ? yj, ) |LaJ, ; )S, y_|, ; (JjloJ, ; ,£0! (> ,loi;
even more v Ial), and many others, "as", "just as", j Jl» "when", "at the
time, when"; ; Jb«^ "until", &c.

JxtX, liV}, UkX;;, (oj, p;>, "if perhaps; possibly; lost perhaps"
(§373).

The following, amongst others, are pure Greek words: yj rava
"perhaps" ; J$_j ehct ; maoj^, itaoo^Hag;^^ fiaXkov;i^.aiJ^/j,akiaTX.

PREPOSITIONS. Propo .

§ 1156. 1'repositious, — or Nouns in the oonstr. st. used adverbially—, uuofpi..
are either simple in origin, or liave sprung from tlic combination of such v °' m ° m -
forms with other short prepositions. Most of them may even take per-
sonal suffixes. Those below, marked with jrf., assume the plural form in
(14 before suffixes. Certain variations of form before suffixes are also
met with hero and there: —

S>- "to"

^ "from"

The n of ^o is assimilated in the adverbials !Ui», 6i|-ui
"allatonce"; "suddenly"; "forthwith" ; ^*_aio ; ;po&ja&;
JLai; •*•>**&; otSfA "anew, — in one's turn", which are
also sometimes written tjj-» ^ &e. ( a ).

(') fA^ and t-j are genuine Syriac words, which, however, have been em-
ployed almost entirely to imitate y&p and 3i.

( 2 ) In pronunciation the n of men was frequently assimilated even at other times.

— 102 — § 156.

%.*»{ x ) (no stiff.); k-L.»; HK? "between".

!k*£i (not used with suff.) ; td*>l pi. ; ^-^4 (before suff. too V) "undor".

^^ as pi. "upon" (<^*», w*©taSj^ &c. ; in poetry often u^sj., — otaij.^. Ac) ;

^.o^,^.. "over".
v>s "with".
l&^_ "with", "to".

ri (§ 21 °) P l "wife", " to "

plo pl. "before": AopjaJa "before" (not with suff.), *uap}oJa (only
before suff.).

jt-u (not with suff.), — Vj-u "round", "about".

tfiChwu pl. ; *uaXai» (only before suff.) "instead of".

^x "until", "up to" (not with suff.).

*Iq_d( (only before suff.) "like".

^2. C^d£&; not with suff.); *&^E>, *Jfc^.d£& (only before suff.)
"for the sake of, "on account of".

*^£ (from ill + o "on the track of") "after".

jkxaa (*&-oo + «o "hiding from") "behind".

tSN^ pl. "without",

\v^nnN "against": ^^^ pl. (§ 49 A) "coram".

loaV "in. conformity with".

u^a ^ [ex inopia] "without" (not with suffix). ( 2 )

Of these, some have already been formed by intimate blending
with ^ and a. And so ^. and ^> are still set before many proposition's,
in some cases without perceptible modification of the meaning, e. g.
la\ £ "%&p.4 £82?"; *§•**$ 4? "fr° m behind, behind"; iKA\ "after";
Idjai ^> "below", &e. Cf. ;^\ ^> "from without" [t^A. being "forts
in campo"] ; <^^ ^ "from within" [oj^* meaning "in medio"] ; along-
side of ^ ^», »

(*) Not to be confounded with the like-sounding K*^ when used adverbially,
meaning "in the houBe of, i. e. in the place of".

( 2 ) The limits of the idea of a Preposition are not exaotly determined. Several
of the cases cited here might be excluded, such as i**\. "acoording to the mouth",
<*!. "in the eye",— while others might be added, like ^ "by the hand of, "by
means of".

§§ 157. 158. — 103 —

^2i g^a may bo used for "without", just like t^a alone.

V must of necessity stand in "^ J&Slx. "as far as, up to" : rarely are

found Loiw J^opk., a Jbo*x "as far as in" ("even in"). Very

rare is ^> ^x. "over, ahovc".

8 157. Witli suffixes: (1) Singular Forms; <*ao.:^, y&x, .oo^ia^, &c, Pre P°-
according to § 145 A. So y£, y^w, o»a, o^, &c; but u.a and ^. auraxei
(2) Plural Forms: ^**pfa, Y-^pf ' — 6taspJ.D, ^oo^m^o, &c., likewise ac-
cording to § 145 A. Such is the procedure too with those forms which
even without suffixes end in ai (pi.), (to which class also belongs ^ij. for
* ..*vv , sff.): -»o.Vv , >I-(Vss., &o. (—otaiow, &c).

iLa and »*£aa keep their a before the suff. of tbe l Bt sing., and
2 nd and 3 rd pi. : —»&■», —»Kaaa ; v q»d»1sA, ^otJfijjaa : but oij^a, oijKma, &c.
So ■ .*v~ ^"v ^o©^JLoo^, &c. (more rarely ^oo^aaX) but o^ a oj\,

h<L=* for tlie most part takes the suffixes at once, yet ^oo^^La is

found alongside of ,6©tkLa,

oKLa.

n. VERBS. ^ • T " , " , ■

§ 158. A. The Syriac verb appears, sometimes with three radicals, ^™£ >or ,
sometimes "with four (§ 57). It makes no difference in the inflection, ««»■»■
whether the verb is primitive, or has been derived from a noun.

B. The Tenses are two in number: Perfect and Imperfect (called
also Aorist and Future). The different Persons, Genders, and Numbers
are indicated in the Perfect by terminations, and in the Imperfect by
prefixes, or by prefixes together with terminations. Add to these the
Imperative, which agrees for the most part with the Imperfect in vocali-
sation, but is inflected by terminations only. Several of the terminations
in the Perfect and the Imperative are now silent (§ 50). Lastly fall to
he considered the Verbal Nouns, closely related to the finite Verb, viz,
the Infinitive, and the Participles (as well as Nomina adionis, and
Nomina agentis). The inflectional marks in the finite verb are always

104

§ 158.

the same, except that they occasionally undergo a slight alteration when
— is the final radical. They are as follows : —

-); e^('»

c.

Pa

feet.

Sg. 3 m. —
3f. Kl

PL 3 in. o (silent) ; ^c
3 L — (or silent *

2 m. L_

2 in. ,61

2 f. wk_ (the -
1. *._

Sg. 3 m. j

silent)

limpet

2 I ^l

feet.?)
PI. 3 m. ^o.—. — i

3f. t

3 f.' r l — j

2 m. 1

2 m. ^q.— — i

2 f . ^ — 1
1.. f

2 f . ^L _ I
1. J(»)

Sg. m. —

f. w (silent)

Impe

"(dive.

PI. m. o (silent), ,©—
f. <*!(*). w (silent

D. Where longer and shorter endings appear together, the latter
are in all cases nearer the original forms. Contrary to the general rule
given in § 43 [y. § 43 0], the assumption of these longer [and later] end-
ings occasions no falling-away of short vowels in the open syllable ; com-
pare cases like .o^iAa, ,o±$jo (sg. ^a^ja, ^gji) with ,o^-oj,
vo^fj (sg. ^a^jjj, ^g-ijj); vOf^i. with o>|aj»j. ^ ^. jb also found
written for ,-j, e. g. ^jlu r; YJj> = ^i^jj. In the Imperative pi. f. the
longer form is far more usual than the shorter.

E. The 3. f. pi. Perf. is written with a - (and — ) in later West-
Syrian texts ; hut the old orthography is retained with the East-Syrians,

(•) In more anoient MSS. v is also found written without .-, e. g. KT ,
> "worshipped", &o, (§ 4 A).
( a ) The vocalisation of the Prefixes is different in different oases.
(*) The !■' pi. of the Impf. invariably coincides with the 8» a m. sg.
(') In the older MSS. also written with v alone, e. g, ,ua for
"hear ye". *

< for

§§ 159. 160. — 105 —

according to which the form is exactly tile same as tile 3 sg. m., except
in the case of verbs tliat have w for their last radical. The West-
Syrians frequently supply the 3 f. sg. Impf. too with a purely ortho-
graphic — , to distinguish it from the 2 m. (§ 50 B). Also in the shorter
form of the Imperative pi. f. the — might well he merely a later addition.

TRI-EADICAL VERBS. WmOM

vorlis.

§ 159. These form the following Verbid Stems for Forms, some-
times called Conjugations] : the simple conjugation Peal (^3; Hebrew
Qal) with its reflexive EtJipeel (^sl(); the conjugation employed to
denote, first, intensity and then too the causative and other allied
meanings, — having the middle radical doubled, and called Pad, (*^3,
Hehrew Pint) together with its reflexive Ethpaal (%±&l\ Hithpael); the
causative conjugation Afhel C^s\ Hipliil), with its reflexive, Ettaphal
(^silj or ^slij § 36).

The reflexives have for the most part acquired a passive meaning.

Rem. Ettaphal is much the most rarely used of these ltefiexives,
and is upon occasion replaced by Ethpeel and Ethpaal, e. g. }y>il "to
bo preached", instead of >\pLl{ from jfcoi; ^.oitj "to he mocked",
instead of ^otUJ from "^.<Stl.

Attention is called to § 26 A and § 26 B in dealing with the
lieflexives.

Forms seldomer used, like the Causative ,-)si "to enslave" and
several others, we find it more to the purpose to take in with the Quadri-
literal (§ 180 f.).

VEEBS WITH THREE STEONG RADICALS. T ori,. „itt

throo strong

§ 160. A. Peal. In this conjugation there is a specially TransiUve ™ li °<**-
form, which in the Perfect lias a as the fundamental vowel of the second
radical, and in the Imperfect and Imperative (u) or it may be «; and
a spocially Intransitive form with e iu the Perfect, and a in the Imper-
fect and Imperative: (I) ^gja, ^o^-qj, ^.q_£-o "to kill"; *a^, **■*&
^a^ "to do". (2) y^, y^ftj, ^ "to be left remaining".

— 106 — §§ 161. 162.

Of strong verbs -with e in the Impf. and Iinpt. the only examples
axe f=»^~, and ^a; "to buy"^ 1 ) A few verbs primae n also take e (§173 B),
as well as a few weak verbs.

Several intransitive verbs bavc the o of the Perfect changed into a,
and thus have a uniform a in both Perfect and Imperfect. Tims ^a,
*£iju "to rule" ; 'Wx, "^J 1 ^ "to »e tired out" ; .n;m, "°"-~; "to be
enough" ; ;o(, /ovj "to exult", and the other verbs which treat to as a
firm consonant; <*.f <!& , •"•f^ "to happen"; and several others. ( s ) We
exclude from this list verbs seamdae or tertian r/utturalis (§ 169 sg.).

Several have secondary forms : thus ^rp", naputj and ~cp ■■, .aiajuj
"to be strong", "to overpower", although ^rru> in the Perf., and ~co«mj
in the Impf. might he most in favour. Through an intermixture of tran-
sitive and intransitive expression, the following verbs have e in the Perf,
and o in the Impf. and Inrpt. : ^MP, »a^mj "to reverence"; *jo&jl,
jsoKaJ "to keep silence" ; ay>, oopi^ "to be near" (cf. iuSj, lo-mi "to
descend", and, it is said, ajjj, ocu "to be lean", § 175 B).( B )

B. The Only certain remains of a Perfect in o are found in }aao
"bristled", "stood up" Job 7, 5; 30,3; Lamentations 4, 8; Ps. 119, 120;
and ^iu] "they (f.) grew black", Nahum 2, 10.
Hani.... | 161. The letters Is.), a [Beghadhkephathl are, in confer-

iuid soft- ^^ J

ne.» of tin mity with general rules (§ 23), soft, as 1" Radical in the Impf. and Inf.
of the Peal: they are hard as 2° d rad. in the Impf. and Inf., hut soft
elsewhere in that stem; as 3 rd rad. they are soft, except after a closed
syllable ; accordingly they are hard in the 3 Id f. sg. Perf., the 1" sg. Perf.,
and the lengthened forms of the Participle. Examples: (1) j°*k.j; iSkjp.
(2) (a) ^aji, v a^>«; ^ijup; (b) ^2;, &*=}/, &c. (3) (a) ^dj, jajojj, Ac;
(b) LJ»j, If*.], ,. j»j.

xthpui. § 162. In the Ethpeel notice the transposition of the vowel in tho

Imperative > ^p\{, also written ^4?1J or ^jalj § 17 (as compared
with Perf. ^.otj; Impf. ^^t^).

( l ) In very rare cases occurs also the Impt. v4aj.

( a ) Some, which grammarians have cited, are uncertain or utterly incorrect.
(") The forms of the Impf. of Peal verhs, rated by Payhjj-Smith in 'Tiles, tyr.'
are not all well attested; several are decidedly inaccurate.

§§ iiiii u>r>. i»7 —

Horn tlio consonants that may lie. softened arc always. hard as
1" rad., soft as 52 nd , anil soft as II" 1 except after a dosed syllalilo, anil in
tlio Imperative, tlms— : oLoH, &<'■> l>ul, kijlS-iL!, Js.ik.iM, ami ^V?!-!-

ij I 63. Tlio characteristic ill' the Pud ami ffih/paal is tlio doubling |J«» »» d
nl' the 2'"' radical. This letter is accordingly always bard, just, as the It" 1
is always soft. Ill Kthpaal flic 1" rad. is always hard; ill l'ael it is soft
in the 1 mpl'., with tho exception of tlio I" tiers., where hardening annual's:
y^f, rie. (S 23 K).

The Imperative Kthpaal - with the Mast-Syrians, and in older
limes even ill the West, (')- eoincideil with the Perfect; hut with the
West-Syrians at a later date the form of the Bthpool came into very
general use in this ease, although the 3" 1 rail, could never he hard. Thus
Imperative y.j^lj, West-Syrian y>aL{ (usually written y.V*l{ or /;?!•[)•
Still even the West-Syrians retained in some cases the original form,
n. i/. always pJ»jL( (take (thou) pity on" ( a ).

§ 164, The characteristic of the Aphel is a foregoing {, of which Jjjj^*
the guttural sound [I] falls away, however, after prefixes; on omj "to
find" with c, v. §§ 45 and 183.

The 1" rad. is constantly soft after prefixes, tho 2" d hard, and the
3 rd soft, ft is tho same with fittnphal

§ 16S. Participles. The Participles undergo changes for Gamier i-.rUoii.ii...
and Number, as adjectives. Peal, Pad and Aphel have an Active and
a Passive Participle Tho Part. act. Peal, has a after the 1" rail, anil
c. after the 2" d , which falls away without a trace, when it conies into an
open syllalilo (§ 1 06) : sg. m. ^$i ; sg. f. (f^i ; pi. m. <j^ ; pi. t. ■&&>■
The Part. pass, has an i aftor tho 2" d rad. (§ 110): "W&a, ^4*. &«•
All other participles havo an m as a prefix. The participles of Ethpeel,
Kthpaal, and Ettaphal, as well as tho active participlos of Pad and
Aphel, agroo completely in tholr vocalisation with tho corresponding forms

(') Tho old poets always employ tho trisyllabic forms.

C) On the other hand several of the abbreviated forms havo also penetrated
into the East-Syrian traditional usage, suoh as j«jtl "shako thyself" Is. 52, 2, for
whloh Hphr. in, 587 B (till has -,ifjU.

Nomina
agoutis.

— 108 — §§ 166. IBS.

of tlio finite verb, e. g. "^uKio, Jjl&rJSop, like ^^jjKj, (Ci^otj;
^ ? toD, Nj^lioo; V&nio; V&a*>, Ac. The participles passive of
Pacl and Aphel liave a in place of c after the 2» a rad. : "*s!g^o, ^Ajuo.
When this it, comes into an open syllable, it falls away exactly like the
I a of the Active form, and so Jl^oao, ^S fl ny , for example, may as easily
' be active as passive.

On the joining of the Participles to the attached subject-pronouns,
v. §64 A.

§ 166. Nomina Ai/entii are formed by the Peal in the form |)6-£js
(Vo-£-o, ^<^-°> fc., § 107); and by the other stems by attaching tin
to the Participles: Bthpeel (li&iK&j Pael bit^o ; Btbpaal LALika ;
Aphel (likjiso; Ettaphal LALoikx, (§ 130).

§ 167. Infinitive. The Infinitive Peal has the form ,=iLa.-o (also
written aakasof 1 ), it is true, but incorrectly); the other Infinitives have
a after the 2 nd rad., and « for a termination, i. e. they take the form of
the abs. st. of Abstract Nouns in Uth: the th re-appears before Pronominal
suffixes.

Bern. On Nomina actiouis v. § 117 (123); of. also § 109.

0) In Ex. 6, 17, the reading V£:xi is well supported, alongside of the
usual *4.£^A.

§ 1G8,

§ 168.

KEGUTjAR VERB.

Pual.

I'orf. flft 3 '"• ^J-°
3 l'. V>&?

2 111. &^§>A

2 r. -k^jj>

2 111, ^pkA^O

pi. 3 ,

:i C ■

1

j <?>**

1 1 1 1 1 1 f. sj,'. 3 m. ^o Anj

2 ra. "Vo^joI.
2f. ^J.1

1 Vb^W
pi. 3 in. v o^^JXf

2 ra. v <c£^uJ.

St ^*«t
1 "V<4aj

Jmpt.ng.iH. ^a^o
1', Aa^n

n\n Aa

It*

V'rtrf. act. m.

M.A

f.

W>

pa»s. m,

^*»

f,

M-.5S-P

Inf.

w I*

Htli|iool.

Oii^oK*.

a\Jji

I'ncl.

v 6i^Ax>

t^ &?

VJ. ? t (uS^ L)

*^Aj»»

no

Y-A

Perf. sg. 3 m.
3 f .
2 m.

2 f.

1

pi. 3 m. j

3f. |

2 m.
2 f .

1 I

Ethpaal.
v o±£oU

Impf. sg. 3 m.
3f.
2 m.

2 f.
1

pi. 3 m.

3 f .
2 m.
2 f.
1

■ Q^Ki

Impt. sg. m.
f.

1 ^W-iCr^M)

Part. act. m.
f.
pass. m.
f.

Jrf.

W-jKA

cCs^jofiop

Apliel.

n^'ftm?

Ettaplial.

o^^LKi

§§169.170. — HI _

VEKBS WITH GUTTURALS.!; 1 ) v«i» with

gutturals.

§ 109. A guttural (ex, u, *.) or r, as 2 nd radical, sometimes causes """<>'
rt to appear alter it in tlie Iinpf. and hnpt. Peal, instead of 0, or again, —
a change which also happens in certain other cases (v. § 1G0), — it may
cause « to appear in the Pcrf. Peal instead of e. Which of the two cases, —
outwardly identical, — is before us, it is not always easy to say. ( ! ) Thus
we have ^a, ^^aJ (as well as ^ojvaj) "to step"; .n\j, ai^ju "to cry
out" ; ^-1-i (West-Syrian ^A^ (')), ^£^J "to grind" ; ;;,», jj^oi "to rebel" ;
,oj,i., <a{^ "to sot (of heavenly bodies)", (but «aji., ooj^j "to sift"
and "to give security"); }e*a*, (o»i. (§§ 37; 174 G), j&ij "to remember",
and others besides, although several are rather doubtful. As the examples
which have been given above indicate, some of these forms are fluctuating.

However, in most of these verbs mediae guttur. or r, no such effect
appears, e. g. »9i S r r> , &n nmj "to overthrow"; ji^., uoop^i "to flee";
)c*m, }i*mj "to testify", &c.

§ 170. A guttural (oi, u, i.) or r, as 3* a radical, when it closes the »■«"«

guttwalie.

syllable, always changes e into a (§ 54). Thus, for example, yuaf,
*jua£», otspkap, ^plo^apt^, >6^.j3dI, t^?L, i-$?L£, which correspond respect-
ively to the forms ^§-§J, ^jJ"o, '^J-qm, ^ofci.^.oj, ^&o!, "^^'■,
^^al{. The difference in sound between the Active and Passive Par-
ticiples accordingly falls away in Pael and Aphel; e. g. *af» is the Act.
Part. Pael (equivalent to ^^jttio) as well as the Pass, (equivalent to

This rule is illustrated also in the Peal of many Intransitives, which
properly would have e in the Perfect. To this class belong the great
majority of those verbs tert. guttur. and r, which have a in the Perf., Impf.,

0) Exclusive of I.

( a ) Translator's Nate: For instance, in the example ,**, i^iea, — ia this form
a result of the influence of the guttural upon an original form jyo, .£**, or upon
an original form j(Jo, )4paj? If the former, the guttural has taken effect upon
the e of the Perf., ohanging it into a; if the latter, the guttural has taken effect
upon the w or a of the Impf., ohanging it into a.

( a ) Seems less original.

— 112 — § 171.

and Impt Peal throughout, e. g. •***■ (for Urns'), voo^J "to hoar"; •&=_£,
~~ ^ i "to sink in, to he immersed" (Trans. •*=-£, ^"^! "to set in, to
immerse"); uA), ^l^i "to seethe"; i-ai", S-"?-^ " to '"' wanting", and
all that have oi, e. ij. opol, o»*>Kj "to wonder".

Of course in some/ew eases descending from remote times such a gut-
tural lias changed even the oofthelmpf. and Impt. into a; thus : — <j)},jjfjj
"to remember" ; (.a;, iJjjJ "to drag away" ; ►=)., j^jKi and Sdakj "to break" ;
u^fc.3, ^oKaj. rarely i-uoKaj "to open" ; <.uNs», u> n\ 9 > i , rarely . a ?^9 i i
"to serve, to cultivate"; >-uaj, "ua(j and wdajj "to slaughter". Ill the
large majority, however, of transitive verlis tort, guttnr., we have o alone
I (sometimes of original formation, sometimes of later analogous formation).
This vowel has even penetrated to some extent into original Intransitivos,
as in ouq^ju, a secondary form to uu^ju, "to strip off" (but only uid^ju
"to send") ; ^i=kj (more rarely) alongside of vy=K3 "to seek" ; >\.ol*aJ
alongside of *d^au "to devour"; *6j^J, more rarely fjaj, "to grow less"
(only »pj "to remove").

Mem. The practice of treating as exceptions, cases of o in verbs
tert. guttur. and r is accordingly incorrect : such verbs surpass in number
not only (by a large majority) those transitives which have a in the Impf.,
but even those intransitives, of which the a of the Impf. is original.

VERBA MEDIAE J.

§ 171. A. These verbs present no difficulty, if the rules given in
§ 33 are attended to. The ! falls away in pronunciation whenever it
stands in the end of a syllable. . The same thing happens, at least ac-
cording to the usual pronunciation, when the I comes aftor a consonant
without a full vowel. The vowel of the I in the latter caso is transferred
to the 1" radical. This applies also to the vowel which has to appear
with ! in place of the mere sh'va [§ 34]. Thus :

In the Peri. Peal VJLj, (- ^Nif) "demanded", &.>*#, kXJLf.,
<£»4*i v>^ v '*. &c— Impf. ^JfJ, vQ^JflJ (— )6^J) &c— Impt. Vlji
u^i* &c— Part, act. ^J-i, ^.JUl; Passive'Mi., ^U.— Inf.^MfSb.—

§«2. - 113 -

Ethpeel V^*JC), t^4*J— Vi^A v cii(K«J; Impt. ^IK«.!.-Inf.
oitil^up, &c..— Aphel ^JUj, tc^JU.! ,— V% ,tf£jb)j,— o£jJb», &c.

&«*. In the Ethpecl the West-Syrians read k^Jk^jforiiJIsj^.—
Pivrt. puss, of Aphel in the eniph. st. l4^¥ ; East-Syrian ^4*> (§ 3 4).
III the Poal is l'omid Ki|a, kijky, KiJUn with hard o (through blending
with the otherwise Eke -sounding forms mediae gem. § 178); hut the
more original form with soft o, kijU &c. is met with, as well as
the other.

B. In the Pael and Ethpaal the vocalisation is quite the same as in
the case of strong radicals : ^JL» ("to ask"), J^»4*, ,otl»-JLy., V °-Vji*j,
o.Vj~»*>; VIW, .O.M&.JJ.

Hem. For **-j^t{ (Ethpecl) "to he evil", there occurs frequently
with the West-Syrians, even at an early date, >«=>!U (with transition to
jirimae J). — In like manner, occasionally <£>iL, <£>!t "displicet" (3 f. sg.
Impf.) for ^Jbot.

VERBA TERTIAE (.
§ 172. A. In some few verbs a final radical I in Pael and Ethpaal Verba -

tertiae I,

still operates as a guttural, by altering e into a. The f itself must of
course fall away in pronunciation, and must give up its vowel to the
preceding consonant. Of these verbs, JLa "to comfort" is of specially
frequent occurrence. It has the following inflection, exactly like ija for
instance, with the exception of the falling away of the ( in pronunciation: —

Pael: Port. sg. 3 m. JLa

>

3 m.

oJUa

3 f. iQ

3f.

jC? M%>

2 m. LjLa

2 m.

voijLa.

2f. -ijL^

2 f .

<Uff

1 &? _

1

V^

Impf. JjiLj, ^M?'-' v?J^ : ?- > ; vji? j -

Impt. J-a, —JLj», oJLp, ^JL* a.

Part. act. and pass, lyjun, ^|s^io.-

-Inf.

Ethpaal JLaU; J^akj; (jJ^ki

&a

(') "Was demanded", and "begged to be excused", ov "declined" (irapair£l<&ai).

— 114 — §172.

Mem. In those juul similar verbs ra>etymologioal modes of writing
are frequently met with, e. g. \\±z> (§ 35), oiJL^xio (§ 33 B), &c.

B, In rare cases, however, there appear transitions to the inflection
of verbs tert. w (§ 176) even in those verbs, which usually are still in-
flected after the above fashion. It is no doubt owing to this tendency,
that forms like ojua, oJLal[, equivalent to oJpa, oSfaU are occasionally
pronounced with an audible c (like o-p; with, the diphthong). Farther
there appears •— U^l{ Impt. sg. £ instead of >- jUaU (like u^^lj tort, —),
a)A!$i Perf. 3 ph f. instead of ^jbggi} "were polluted" (like c:^5j.0,
where, but for the mere retention of a written f, the form of tart. <— is
completely attained. Thus — J^J-J alternates directly with JJL^U (JU^-U)
"to be proud"; — 1§ with fjj (also written JLj, § 33 B) "to pollute".

0. Quite isolated is an example of a similar formation for the Peal
in the finite verb, viz. — ojto (like o^aj) "were dark-coloured" (properly
from Kvdvsog § 117, Rem.); from this verb also there is an Ettaphal
jioLLj and what is like a Part. pass. Pael (pi. f.) ^-Q^o. — Participles of
Peal are found in the substantive forms U\i "tutor", pi. Itjl. (from
focopla?) — to which belong the Pael Jit, and Bthpaal (*UJ (also written
Hit, Uilll), with the nomen agentis JftfX^o "tutor" — , and (Jjjjd "hater",
"enemy", pi. Jj-icp, f. {^JlJ%e», and the adjective Part. pass. jlJUlop "hated
(f.)", pi. m. ^JLam, {JUIcd (verbal Part, jlco, JUxijo, ^jjb, constr. st.
u>im ( 1 )). J.|i^flo? "I have been hated" appears also.

Hem. The verbs mentioned in this section might thus be hold to
be about the only ones, in which the I is still treated as a guttural.
Otherwise Verbs, which originally were tert. I, pass completely over
to the formation tert. — (as even fJLs "to be beautiful", which is usually
reckoned as belonging to this section).

( l ) In Aphr. 286, 6, for HU **j**p "who hate reproof" there ia a variant -)-**b
UJJ "haters (enemies) of reproof". — Cf, farther llaleo "hated" § 113 (and lljica
"hatred" § 100). The other derivatives look as if from tert. -.

§ 173. — 115 —

VERBA PBIMAE J.

§ 173. A. The )( as 1'' rati is assimilated to the following one, if v<rt«i
it comes directly upon it (§ 28), which can happen only in the Peal, Aphel 1 " i "" '
and 'Kttaphal, — thus from jaaj "to go out", xcLsl = isoajl; ja&J =
■ nflit, &c. Several verbs are excepted, which have o* as 2 nl1 rad. ; e. <j.
from jom "to he bright", we have >c*u, 'ogj; and from joop (the "West-
Syrians, it seems, have joop) "to roar", pot-u, ^asooai. So from *a-uj
"to he barefooted", i°w*t? (but from kAj "to descend", L6-uj, h*Zl, Ac).

J£c7J?. Bare cases, like ioj.u for the usual >6yJ "vows" ; <nmiv> =
<m^ -y > "to slaughter" (Tnf.), &c. are probably rather graphical than gram-
matical deviations.

B. In the Peal, some verbs have, along with a in the Perf., a also
in the Impf. (and Impt.). Thus in particular ami "to take", oou ;
a.u "to blow", «=^»J; and of course the intransitives tert. fjutt. ov^J "to
come forth", ov=»j; "s^-i "to well forth", <iii; »1>J "to Ml off", >4o Ac.
Only a few preserve the intransitive pronunciation in the Perf., like <&ai
"to adhere to", aoi.

Of transitives ^§J "to keep" has a in the Impf., \Qi, but id^j
is met with also. O is found besides in the Impf. with tert. gutt. in >fi
"to vow", Jot-i ; (jjj "to dig or cut through" ; ><ua.i ; i-uai "to blow or
sound", wd&j'; u-iaj "to bark", ujdaj.

Many more of these verbs have o in the Impf. and Impt. (v. what
follows).

In the Impf. (Impt.) the following have, c:— ^ai"to fall"; , ^ai;
,4^1 "to draw", *^; j^j "to shako",jaj; imai "to cast lots", "»aj; add
to these "^-%J "gives" (of which o5»j serves as the Perf. § 183).

Notice farther KLi "to step down", "to descend", lii^J, and oZj
"to be lean", adj^ (not certain) § 160 A.

0. In many of these verbs the Impt. Peal loses tho n altogether.
Thus QJp "take"; exj, "blow"; Ao "adhere to"; ^ or id^ "keep";
^ "fall"; *^"<lmw"; j$ "shako"; \&u "step down"; aiuo "perforate";
olio "strike"; ^d*u "sift"; ooj "plant"; undo "slay"; JJd* "kiss";
'Voj "pour" ; ^.qjo "put away" ; jkis "go out".

— 116 — § 174.

On the other hand the n is retained in the Impt. in e.r/., Ya+i "vow",
!6-aJ "bite", and perhaps in the most of those which have a in the Impf.,
(farther in those winch are at the same time tcrt. w, like *-jj, from 111
"to quarrel") and in those which do not assimilate the n, like »©*j "he-
come clear", "flaWf 1 ).

The following synopsis shows the principal forms, which deviate
from the usual type of the verb.

Peal

Perf. Jisu, asa.i, *^.
Impf.

.nn on

ami

Impt.

J3Q-3

ca-CD

r^»

,0-00-3

.4.

Q.jOO.3

Q.SXOJ

°r^,

^£as

^ffl

*-f^*

^Q.jaaj &c. ,aa..mj &c. v?t*^ ^ c *

Aphel uasj, ^A9l; Jl ?*, ^ n0t j — da § : £j cmaM.

Ettaphal to£U{, k$frlX{ &c.

E. iJem. In these verbs softness or hardness in the consonants
depends in every case absolutely on the general rules given in § 23, and
that which is noted in § 161 et sqq. A consonant to which n is assimi-
lated has the value of a double consonant, and must accordingly be hard,
while the one that follows can never be hard.

VERBA PRIMAE \,
§ 174. A. The I must, in accordance with § 34 take a full vowel
in place of a sh e va, and this vowel is e in the Perf. Peal and in the
whole of Ethpeel: po|, i-»i^.j, while it is din the Pait. pass. Peal: !-*»(.
Bern. The East-Syrians use a even in the Perf. Peal of some verbs:
j^S "oppressed"; jaSs "was angry"; ^Jj "met"; — farther, )JJ "mourned",
and J^J "baked", winch are at the same time tcrtiae w. But in other
cases they too have poj, &c.

( l ) In many verts primae x the formation of the Impt. does not admit of
being established with any certainty. The vowele too of the Perf. and Impf, in many
verba of this class are uncertain.

§174. _ H7 _

II. The prefix-vowel of the Impf. Peal and the Inf. Peal forms, with
the radical !, an S (§ BIS), which for the most part becomes — (') with the
West-Syrians in those verba that have a in the Iuipf., as well as in those
verbs (hat are at the same time tart, -*, — while in verbs with o it remains i.
With ii. in the Impf. and' Impt are t if "to perish", jijb ; t*>! "to say",
r*>)j; and perhaps two or three more: add thereto VJf "to go", ^JJb,
but Impt. ^; (§ 183). To this class belong also JaJ "to bate", JLsJU ;
(Jj "to inonrn", ()|j; |Lj "to come", Itjj, but Impt. !J (§183). On tlie
other hand with o are i-^J "to hire", hi^Ji; jij "to hold", )aj*.)j; ^i!
"to eat", ^d-flji, and many others.

Verbs with a titlco a as the vowel of the I in the Imperative : ^.ia!,
the others take ir. po[.

0. In the Ethpeel notice the application of § 34, according to which,
in certain forms the c which ! mnst talce instead of the sli'va is thrown
forward on the I. ; the same thing is done with the regular a of the other
forms of Ethpeel, as well as of all those of Ethpaal: j^.il| andj^-lif
"to be oppressed"; i-cpitj (or i-flsW §§ 17; Si Bern.); f. L«ail{, Impt.
p»!l{. In the Ethpeel of j-l>[ "to take", however, the I is assimilated to
i instead, the i becomes hard and the e falls away (§ 36) : *jSIU (written
also ^l»1| merely), Ij-l»IU, &c. Others too have sometimes a like for-
mation, n. ij. v 6ttoiU "yon are bound" (say ^oLtJapli). It is exactly the
samo witli *-"ji-l.{ "to groan" ( a ).

1). For the Pael it has to lie noted that the 1 st sing. Impf. is not
jSsJ, like *^$$i> nu ^ simply j^» . Of course the a of the I passes over
to tho prefixes in cases like j^-ff, ,£■•>»• In >&%> "to teach" this ( is
almost always parted, with, even in writing, n. g. *akj = *a^*Jj, iflNyAc,
Individual casos of this kind are found also with other verbs, e. g. *-"$£?
"goes away", instead of ^>JL*> (= nilMD Denominative from JL&So? "way").

(*) There are sporadic exceptions in accordance with § 46, like vPr^J) Sap.
14, 10 as variant for vpj?#; ^J^; Deut. 4, 26 as var. for ^aji;; and various forms
from V)l (§ 18a) ( V «£IJ Sprt«sre John 16, 20 BeassTEiti).

( a ) The language takes oajI as root and sometimes even forms derivatives
from it, like USnX "groaning".

— 118 — § 174.

E. In the Aphel and TCttaphaU 1 ) verbs prhnac I pass over wholly
to the formation of verbs primae ° (v. § 175 B). Thus from ^o[, ^-?©|>
'^ioilj; *»o<[; t_tio{. (Only tyb which is at tlic same time tertian —,
forms, in accordance with the analogy of the original primae ^, — k*J t
— K.LL{. Of. also the old Aphel ,-&-oi "to believe", "to intrust to",

F. 2£em. In ether respects also indication is given of a certain
effort in verbs priniae I to cross over to the class yn-iinae o (*- ). Thus
with i£>Ss "to teach" the Peal is .3^ "to learn"; thus farther one says
fLjC "to he black" and ^v " to be long", for EON, "p«. .Similarly there
is also found the verbal adjective (§ 118) r*iL> for the usual j-^>| "lest".

G-. According to the West-Syrian pronunciation, even verbs he-
ginning with o*v (§ 37) share in the treatment of verbs primae (, thus :
joti. "to remember", »oi^tJ &c. (East-Syrian jot-i*, >wi-U). — Still more
completely of course does this happen with those verbs whose initial ^
has already become I in writing, like >^jj "to meet" (from yi»), ^6>)f,
Aphel ^joj.

H. The following survey shows the principal forms which deviate
from the common type.

Feed.
Perf. ^J, .fc^o!, iis^J, (obvjj, o!>^;.

J^Vo-op, ^o-olt, v^sil., ,<cL>)i,— ^oj>[ (1"' sing.).
mp ' \v*U., V&p <;P<4, v?t»A>,— t-»j (I"' sing.).

<■¥!> -*¥i> *Vfh v°H?i' *'<e?i-
Inf. ^il^ i WJ*?, Pwt pass. Vil.

Mhpeel.
Perf. ^lij, t^iii, k^£.— Impf. ^?!^>, ^l^j.— Tmpt^iU.f)
—Part. Vl^>, )loj^>.— Inf. o^I%.m.

(•) So too in the Shaphel *£•», <J«W (§ 180).

C) There are Beveral examples of this form. Bat \=lll as Impt., also occurs
with three syllables; thus, no doubt, \ity[ Ephr. II, 847 D, and repeatedly, (where
Etlipaal is scarcely admissible).

§ 175. — 119 —

'Pael
Perf. j^.— Impf. j%JF, <o$XJ? ,— ; ^ (1 Bt sing.)-— Impt jj*.— -Part. act.
^JL», lj^J»; pass. £fk$, (P^M?- — W °£VM?-

Perf. jfcjlj, t^Jy, &c- Impf. j^fcj, v ojJ*skj.— Impt. j^tlj (j*4i).—

lit. jSs^>, ?pJK».— Inf. ofXl^s.

Aphel \poJ |

^ , , «. •. t , ( v - Innection 01 verbs vrimae o.

Ettaphal ^ottJJ *

VERBA PRIMAE o AND w,
8 175. A. In verlis of this sort, which besides are not numerous, v "' ha

° _ yrimfie

— appears throughout, except hi Aphel and Ettaphal, (and setting aside «.r-.
the exceptions mentioned in § 40 A, viz : Part. act. Peal )I6 "it is
fitting", and the Pael <^.o "to appoint", along with Ethpaal t^j-olj) both
for original — and for original o (and in part for {, v. § 174 IP).

Instead of — with sh e va, — I has to appear (§ 40 C) in Peal and
Ethpeel, thus: — ^p, £j£, **•.£*&-£, *^*^», &C ^l is often written instead
of it, in the beginning of the word, e.g. ol\J> = oL^: "they inherited", (fecf 1 )

In the Perf. Peal, those verbs which do not end in a guttural or r
(with the exception of oSv- §§ 38; 183) have e, thus I'^J "inherited"; ^SJ
"bare"; <ak? "sat"; +&2 "burned"; but of course >\p "knew"; i-o*
"was heavy".

In the Impf and Inf. Peal the two most frequently occurring verbs
of this class, ^.£5 and oJ^S, lose their w, but instead double (and harden)
their 2 nd rad., and so become here like to verlis primac J. They farther
lose the w in the Irapt. Peal (as also does ao^ which does not appear
in the Impf.), thus: **^j, oKj; **£&, o6o&; "xj, oL (o$), &c. (of, ^p>p,
J^ty § 126 B). The rest pass over entirely, in the Impf. and Inf. Peal,
to the analogy of those verbs primae I, "which have a in the Impf, e. g.

(*) An individual case is found even of J.it-1 "I have gained" = ljK; Apoat.
Apocryph. 806, 7,; also i^n' "she knew" = ^j"»- Spicileg. Syr. 40, 8 (both caeea
after JU).

— 120 — §175.

t^Jb, v ©£XJi (cf. § 23 D) from t V(*)- Tuese luxvc lilcuwisc a « l tllc
Impt. and preserve the l 8t rati, as **.

B. In the Aplid, jxxI "to suck" still shows the radical -: JXf-j;
and so also runs ^~j[ " to wa ^"» $& 18 i*e*<% iUI Aphel). All the rest
have an in tlie Aplid and Eitivplud: oloj, ^aloUJ; ^?°j, -^joLU;
«*%of "to dry up", &e. In this form *niof occurs as well as &$->{■ In the
inflection tins cm or fti is treated exactly like c. <j. the a% in^t^ol.

C. In the Pael andEthpaal these verhs are not discriminated from
strong verhs: e.g. ^a.-, *V*-lJ; ^^*J, *Va-fco, &e. are exactly like
^aj, &c.

D. The following tabular statement shows the principal, forms which
deviate from the general type:

Peal.
"Perf. AJEsf), Ksju, Ksjb, ,oK3jb, &3Jt.

( 3JJj, i9j(l, ^s>)\l, ,o£jJb— &% (l Bt sing.).
Impf. { JoISj, oj,l, ^H' \?4^ — °U-

I i^?J, ^?l, ^^?L, ^o£.^j— >x?£.

jot, aaL, ^=*L.

I Wi *j4j t^?-

Inf. iSj|» — ^i-*, ^4»- — P art - P ass - ^-A--

Eihpeel.
Perf. ^X.t{, J^sjuLJ, fc«3JLU. — Impf. *sJL*J, tO&j-fco. — Inf. aajLJSoo.

Ayliel.

SUaphal.

Hem. Examj)les of the Impt. Etlipeel like &)-£•{ and Impt. Ethpaal
*BjioUf scarcely ever appear.

f 1 ) Here too with the "West-Syrians the JLl is occasionally still retained instead
of the J-^., e. g. v«j»jJ? (Deut. 33, 19 according to Barh.), *2l.Jj& (Bernatein's Johannes
S. VI), instead of the usual ^k$ t jty& (UJj^- variant of JjijUfc. Matth. 26, 74).

( 2 ) "to horrow", "to lend".

§ 1.76. — 121 —

VERBA TERTIAB -.
8 176. A. Verbs tertian — deviate from the strong verb uracil r " 1 "

tertiat .

more decidedly than the classes hitherto described. The radical i, y
brings about a vowel-termination, and is fused with the endings in various
ways. In the Perfect Peal a transitive form of pronunciation with a in
the 3 r(1 sing. m. (like Jboi "threw") and an intransitive with I are to be
distinguished; but side by side with the hitter form there appears and
that widely, one with i~i {p.. ij. — J-u and Ifja "rejoiced"^)). In the Impt.
Peal the transitive form in I has almost completely supplanted the in-
transitive form in ai, v. infra I).

B, The Perf., except in Peal, always has i, which, like the I of the
intransitive Peal, is retained even before endings, and with o forms the
diphthong a*_ lit. The later West-Syrians often attach an additional -,
of course a silent one, to the 3 Id pl. f. as a diacritic mark, e. g. uj\^l\
= uSi^U "they (f.) are revealed".

Notice the difference between the 1" sing. k*-. with soft I and the
2 ml sing. m. k*_ with hard t in all classes ( a ) ; in the transitive Peal, at
least with the Bast-Syrians, it farther happens that the 1" sing, has
e (k*_).

0. The Impf., when without any of the endings, terminates in !—
ill all classes; the samo is the case with the active Participles. "With that
(_ the ending nu blonds into vp (West-Syrian mm), and the ending «
into en.

1). The Impt. sing. m. ends in a in the Pael, Ethpaal, Aphel, (and
Ettaphal?).— In the Impt. Ethpeel the ending with the West-Syrians
is fit, e. <j. "^J.£ "reveal thyself" ; >Ju4.[ "show thyself" ; the Bast-
Syrians vocalise the 1" rad., after the analogy of the strong verb, and
write a double, but silent -, thus: •-i^l, *~^t!. The West-Syrians

(') So JA; "swore", alongside of the less frequent **J. As variants of the
West- and East-Syrian tradition, without consistency on either side, ,o«; and ^;
along with a&J is found ftjW &c.

( a ) Transgressions against this rule in manuscripts and editions are due to
oversight.

— 122 — § 176,

also often say u*isL£ as well as **isU "repent", and even in very early
times it in found written (*) plainly ^sll.

The intransitive form of the Impt. sing. m. Peal was properly ai.
But this form is authenticated with certainty still only in **io- "swear"
(of the class primae w at the same time), occurring alongside of u&I,
and in — ^^{ "drink" (with prefix [, according to § 51) from — &*■{.
In other cases the form throughout is wJU> "rejoice", &c. (On ty "come",
v. § 183).

E. The 3 rd pi, m. Perf., at least in Peal, and in like manner the
Impt. m. pi., and the 3 rd pi. f. Perf. in all the verb-classes, [or Conju-
gations] have occasionally lengthened forms: \oJ*p> (^oo»», ,oojboj) = a»j;

there is also written instead, e»>, ^»V(, ^*»VU &c, Por ^$_ of the Imperative
pi. f. there is also found -I, e, g. ^*Jjj i e. ^;JJ$ "pray ye" (§ 40 E). More
rarely we meet here with the short forms in w (probably ai) like — jx»
"rejoice ye" (f.) ; umjJLJ "be ye like" (f.). In the l Bt pi. perf. we meet with
^u»j, *^*^-», ^J-^'l &°- as well as ^oj &o.

P. The JEUaphal does not occur with sufficient frequency to
call for its consideration in the Paradigm. Besides, the only form open
to doubt is the Impt. sing, m.; all the other forms follow the analogy of
the other reflexives.

On the blending of the Participles in e, and pi. en, with affixed
subject-pronouns v. § 64 A.

Rem. Verbal forms, winch showed o as 3 rd rad. no longer appear.

(*) lollt, as it is usually printed in Rev. 2, 5 and 15, is inaccurate. [Gutbir
gives -all!]. And yet this remarkable form of the Imperative (oilJ will have to ho
recognised, for likewise in Euseb. Church Hist. 211, 1 the two manuscripts which
belong to the 6 th century have loll! for nEravoyaov, The other two, — tolerably an-
cient also, have till. It looks like a regular Ethpaal form, but the verb appears to
occur only in the Ethpeel.

§ "6.

123

PARADIGM OP YEEB TERTIAE .

Peal.

EthpiH

1.

Pert sg. 3. m.

*£>

" f"

3. f.

%*»

^H^

v»m

2. m.

&*»$

&^JU

iC*>»ii

2. f.

—&.-*>>

X^u

-L*>>ii

1.

&.-*>>

V-t-o

v-i»l.i

pi. 3. in.

ttipj

O H ' i

Oa»)U

3. 1

i*30»

."ir"

uSUJ

2. m.

^pk*»S

^oR.-i^

,oLo>»H.|

2. f.

<V^?'

^buf^D

^*&jU

1.

<e?'

<r°

<*"■{

Impf. sg. 3. m.

J&W

l^iki

3. f.

J^St

J&'U

2. m.

jtasj.

j&«4

2. f.

^'l

^*»u

1.

jum]

(*»4

pi. 3. m.

v°.*>H

<d»>kj

3. f.

K^H

. 'vVfto

2. m.

&*"h

v <uo*U

2. f.

t-^"!

<^»J4

1.

)a.p

JLS>«SJ

Impt. sg. m.

uib>

"¥"•{

(^*>)U)

f.

UJO)

-»'4

pi. m.

QdOJ

oapStJ

f.

t^?*'*

^-ai»ll

Part. act. sg.

J^f-

JLSiof

liiki,

1I»>K&

pi.

KZ&\>

K^**i

^>K>&,

^joVSA

pass. sg.

&,

U»>

pi.

^j,

*r^°j

Inf.

J^>^>

oiiiKib

124

§176.

Pad.

Ethpaal.

ApM.

Porf. sg. 3. m.

«*&i

ui|t(

ujtoll

3. f.

hi"!

K^t;

K*»»!

2. m.

K*ij

£*!>.{

K-ii!

2. f.

-Ljo;

-Lajij

^.&-oib>!

1.

Kwjo|

V^M

&***"!

pi. 3. m.

a**>>

o^bjlj

Q^j|

3. f.

yj£j

useiilj

u&>|

2. m.

^oJ^j^l

V 6JL»U!

^6lS.^i|

2. f.

M&.A&J

^J^iwLI

^A.oo>?

1.

^io»

^"JM

<*H

Impf. sg. 3. m.

J*y

J^jki

J&H

3. f.

jast

1*J4

jm.

2. m.

Ms#

JbS>|4

ja.il

2. f.

t*$ l

<*W

^&>l

1.

*^!S

&il{

J&»]

pi. 3. m.

v^M

v CL»jfto

vj^H

3. f.

tr** 1

^3^

t iso *i

2. m.

^l

v?- 50 !^

^°'^

2. f.

^JOjt

^Iaoi'4

1.

&*>

jasto

J&H

Impt. Sg. TQ.

JAj

**jM

liS|

f.

ujef

uA}t{

u&J

pi. m.

aapi

<U$l{

CL*»(

f.

<^>

<**w

^>'j

Part, act. sg.

J&t*>, JLboijio

J&|k&, JlSjoSJ^

Jbo^p, JLSaojjp

pi.

<^>, ^>5»

,*^>>to2j, _Jbo»k&

^pp. ^*>?

pass. sg.

u^p^s, JLSu^o

■»¥!■¥> JL£s>t*>

P i.

^jso, ,-bojJO

«f*P?> (^'t*

Inf.

aiijjjo

oi&ifcsib

o_£*>po

S 177. — 12S -

VBEBA MBDIAJ o AND -.

§ 177. A. Verbs, whoso a'"' rail, is looked upon as no, or rather yw»
verbs wliic.1i replace the a 1 " 1 rail, by a long vowol, aro still farther ro- ,* _,
moved from (,lio goiiora.1 type, in 1'oal, Aphel, I'Mrpool and Kttaphal,
Until the preceding c1ii.sk.

hi I'eiil they have. H in tlio I'orf. between tlio two linn radicals
(•pj> "stood"), anil it in tlio Impf. and Impt. (po-ili, )oo-o). Till) intran-
sitive nils "In die" alone lias l in tlio I'orf. (k^x>).l}) In tlio Part. act.
tlioy have ri-ft, and with lengthening, iii- (pJLo, Ji-'O) : in tlio Part. pass.
; (p-jo), anil in tlio Till'. « (yiAin). 'J'lio Inf. is sometimes written inac-
curately a*Laso. Tlio only verb which still exhibits middle •-., lias tin
tlio Inipt', and Impt (ji.mi, jaȣ>)('); in otlici' respects it is exactly liko
those, with middle o.

B. In the Aphd I appears throughout (ja-Ji, p->&>), except in tlio
Part. pass, anil the Inf. (yvAv, oi&»).— It is tho very same in Ettaplud,
whore only the Inf. has <l (p-M.L{, p-uStVj— aAoili.^). The Btlqwel
ar/rcm completely with tho Kttaphnl, or rather the Ethpeol in those
verbs is quite supplanted by the Kttaphal. In the reflexives even a
single I may bo written for the. double L (§ 30). Tho frequently occurring
reflexive of ia»^%J "to persuade" (with Grook it § 15, from Itsimi) is
written axuaU.!, .nv.*).i, and iil'toiicat nm . ft^ U (eforfs), by assimilation
of tlio I to tho it. So by a wrong use, in a few rare cases evon V*a^L!
"to burst out in anger" ("to boil").

(!. Tho prefixes tin are applied in tho Poal and Aphol without
a vowol. And yot forms of tlio prolix with a vowol aro not infrequently
found, particularly in the poets, like paij, loi>|, j.^ "wiikous up",
l_^; raroly wo have Infinitives liko *sjp "to remain". Whether forms
of three syllables liko v <i&oJaj occurred also, is not certain.

(') Vory rarely indeed h£ is aaid to appear.

(>) But not in tho Porf., where only mm ocourn, not Am. In verbn mcd. •
no traoo hai been retained of an intransitivo mode in the Impf. and Impt. Teal.

— 126

§ 1".

D. In the Aphel, hardening occurs according to tradition after the
vowel a in ^j "made ready", and in "^fiO "measured", while the
softness of the 1" rad. may he held certain in a-U "gave hack", >n-|i
"beheld", Ik^l "I spent the night", and many others.

E. Pad and Ethjiaul mate use of a double c (nil/) in place of the
2 na rail., as p^o "to maintain", pjolj; a^L "to charge", &c, but somc-
tiuics a double o (auw), as jloJJ "to bedaub" (East-Syrian maimer of
writing is «*o^ § 49 B) ; jOj "to set right", "to admonish" (alongside of
,-J "to set or attach on- the right side" &c). The inflection of these
verbs is exactly that of the strong verbs.

P. Those verbs also are declined like strong verbs, which have an
altogether consonantal to, e. g. jo> "to exult", IJoj, /op, joj, Ac. ; lo^>
"to add to" (Denominative from loi* "by, on to"), UoSs, ^.toi^, &e. ;
^■S*-! " to aet wickedly" (from Jlai. "iniquity"); o^oi "to be wide",
*"5'|i ^93 "to widen" (contrasted with ^ju^ff "to smell", uj_> "to soften, to
appease") ; io-jj "to be white" (Jii § 116, — contrasted with pi "glanced").
They are mostly Denominatives, and by no means the remains of a for-
mation more original than that of verbs properly med. a.

G. The following synopsis gives a view of the deviations from the
general typo, which occur in these verbs.
Peal.

Perf.

<fL& (p£f)

K-.»

WjS

iL»

b^xo

iL»

uu

ofcs.*ib

>K*o£

,6LKt&

^vi n

Aii

Part. act. jsJLo (pjjp, IJbo), JUa^
pass. )o.a£ ()a*ii>).

A-

ttoaJ

Irapf.

jo_>.mj

4. i.

Imjvt.

, o-ba*m

^.ipOuO

Inf.

^AxA

JQ.AiO

(j&jql»,

K&so).

( l ) In certain modifications of meaning, however, the former of these two
words is Baid to be given as ^*5|; and the whole matter is thereby made a subject
of considerable doubt. \±*1 in particular owes its hardness expressly to the silly

§178.

— 127 —

Perf.

A'pheL
Impf.

Impt.

^of

jo-uoj

J***!

KttLh£(

y^.ol

o.M*fl(

Kio^isf

4 -

^a«!

Q^Ufll

Part. act. n-wo.»

^otoiXuOJl

pass. jaAio

^a!

Inf.
Ettaplml and Etlipeel

VERBA MEDIAE QEMINATAE.

§ 178. A. Verbs which restore the 3"* rad. by doubling the 2 nd *•««■
are in their origin closely related to verbs med. o, and they still repeatedly geminatae
give and take to and from them (§ 58). They double the 1" rad. after
prefixes, otherwise the 2 nd if it is preceded and followed by a short vowel.
"When there is no ending, and immediately before consonants, the 2 ad
consonant remains without doubling. Only Peal, Aphel, and Ettaphal
fall to be considered here.

In the Perf. Peal all these verbs of course have a, and in the Impf.
and the Impt. sometimes o, sometimes a: e. g. ^x "to enter", \aij,
^ax; >^"to shear", jo-^; »a^"to grope", jlo.^, &c. — jiju "to
he hot", ja-Etj; <*^ "to be old", *.oj; *j "to be abominable", *ij; i^j
"to covet", i^y, and many others. The latter set are plainly intran-
sitives. Only ^a "to err" has »ai with e.

B. The Part. act. is like that in verbs median o: jJL^, ^jj; but
doubling makes its appearance whenever the Participle is lengthened:
IjL^, <^^J, &c. Also in those forms, particularly in ^x "to enter", an
I is usually written, which however has no significance for pronunciation :
^Vjx or ^x; ^^Jj or <»^Lj. A superfluous ! is also sometimes
written in the Aphel (§ 36) e. g. n^ ''dyiN "to love" for n a . ' t in \ (Inf.).

desire to distinguish it from "Wl "oaten" (§ 23 G. Bern.). At the same time it is
stated that, "in the land of JJarriin", that is, in the very home of the dialect, they
say \*3|. Thus always V*jm» Slc.

128

178.

0. In forms furnished with prefixes (Impf. and Inf. Peal, and the
whole of Aphel and Ettaplial), hardening always appears: thus jqAj
"robs"; vv&l "hatched", &c. In this, as also in other respects, theso
forms (and the Impt. Peal likewise) agree entirely with the formations
of verbs pHmae J, so that sometimes a doubt may actually exist as to
whether a verbal form belongs to the one or to the other.

In the Perf. Peal the 2 nd rati, becomes hard, only when an original
vowel following it has been retained: thus like us "dashed in pieces",
Kaja, ^oisjaa, also o~a.a and even in the later "formations i/* ftff, r*^?'
but &-a», k.a-9- In the Impt. it is always correspondingly soft: ^3,

D. In the JSthyeel the 2 nd and 3 rd rads. (contrary to the funda-
mental rule) are kept separate, and the inflection is quite the same as
in the strong verb. Only, — when the two come together, the mode of
writing is sometimes simplified, e. g. ^ojiato for ,oJ>=»fcj (like ^a^-o^j) ;
Ijjakio for Ijjf^o (like JJ^.olc2>) from jjialj "to be robbed", jj-oU "to
be imputed". — In the Pael and Ethpaal these verbs exactly resemble
the strong verbs, although the pronunciation, at least in later times,
in cases like Kans (properly paqqeqath) allowed of a simplification (to
paqqath or even paqatli).

E. We give in what follows a complete paradigm of the Peal (short
only of the secondary forms).

Perf. Impf. Impt,

;qAj sg. m. jCL^s

;d=4 f- —;d»

j«iat pi. m. oj<ia

x^l f. ^*)<^=>

^ojiaj Part. act. ;JLa, !.££

-)l» ^ji^j pass, ju£»

sg

3. m.

M?

3. f.

±h

2. m.

**9

2. f.

Jlv*

1.

\h

pi

3. m.

OJL^

3. f.

.>*■

2. m.

v«i>?

2. f.

<!*?

X.

V*?

M

Inf.

>~>V>

§ 179. — 129 —

For the Apliel the following abstract may suffice: Perf. jtaj, Lj&l;
ojiaj, v 6J.jLaJ; — Impf. Jlkj, ^oJaJ — Impt. jl?J ; ^H» — Part, act. jla.^s,
(.ii^p. — Part. pass. JL=t^o, — tf^p. — Inf. ojLkip.

The Ettaphal would run j£Uj, &c.

VERBS WEAK IN MORE THAN ONE RADICAL.

§ 179. A. Verbs, which contain two weak radicals, present almost verbswoak
no peculiar difficulties. Verbs yriniac J, which are at the same time tUa ™ Qm
tert, — , show the peculiarities of both classes, e. g. from J^u "to damage" rndiottl -
J-aJ; Aphcl ui{, JLa,*> ; Impt. Aphel \*.\ "cause to forget"; ojapl "put to
the proof, &c. They retain the n in the Impt. Peal: ^aj, &c.

Verbs primae j, which are at the same time meet, o or mod. gem.,
retain their n in all circumstances, thus e. <j. jooij (meet o) "sleeps"; +u
{mad. gem.) "is abominable".

B. Verbs primae I, winch are at the same time tart, w, correspond:
jjj "to wail"; l&l "to bake" (East-Syrian Jjj, JkaJ); JJJb, Jiajj; v ^»|t
(also ^e2*4 § 174 B, Bern.); Impt. ^J; f. u^S (East-Syrian u^);'Ethpeel
Jl&(1Sj ; &c. (For a third verb of this kind, which appears in the Peal, (£[,
v. § 183). Pael uj»j "to heal", JLptf &c.

It is the same with verbs which are at once 'primae and tertiae —
\i. e. they show the variations associated with both types of weakness in
the radical]: Jb^5 "to swear"; J^ "to sprout": aaaJ or (intr.) o-oia-
(§ 170 D, Bern.)-— Jb2>Jj, J^Jb; J^Jbo (also JbeJ& § 175 A, Bern.); Aphel
u&o|, <-x.o], to which add —fo| "to confess" and a few others wliich
do not occur in the Peal: ^-?ol, Ijaj, ^ojo.j, &c.

C. Verbs tert. v-, which have a w as 2 nd rati., a. (7. &X "to ac-
company"; lu "to be equal", keep it always as a consonant, and ac-
cordingly do not diverge at all from the usual type of verbs tart, w.: a. g.
icuX; JoAj; woU{; Jo-al; vOO^ju, &c.

D. Even in verbs secundae I, which are at the same time tert. —,
the procedure is in accordance with the rules elsewhere given. What
effect these rules have is shown in the following forms : Perf. |JU "to find

— 130 — § 180.

fault with", f. IJ^, pi. oj^ ; Impt. -M, f. -M; M. ?|A*>. Ethpeel -J&XJ.—
Intrans. Perf. wJU "to grow tired", &.-.JJ, k-jU, W k-J|) o^-JU, wj| and ^Jj,
^y; Impf. %, v djtf, <ijp; Part. $, jjj; Inf. JJJ*>. Aphel wjj; Part, f .

E. Several other combinations, which however occur very seldom
indeed, — such as primae I and med. gem. in ,o(l (^plt) "thou art
groaning", or prim. ( and med o in KsoU^ 1 ) " s l ie longed for", or
primae — and secundae I as in JaJL "she longs for", ojL- L| (im-
properly written cl-.JL.LJ § 33 B) "he longed for", and the triple weakness
in w5| (Pael) "to restore to harmony", Ethpaal — o|l[ (also written, to
be sure, —oil) — need no special explanation. > ^-J "to lament" (§ 175 B)
has its two I's always separated: Ai^-j, &c.

QUADBILITERAL AKD MULTILITERAL VERBS.

§ 180. As Quadriliterals we reckon here both those verbs which
to™.! ivn-.i canno t readily be traced back to shorter stems, such as e. g. joi^s "to

Quadrili-
tetal and
multi literal

scatter", and those, in which this is easily done. To the latter class be-

Formation

ofcLuadn- long, amongst other : —

literals.

(1) Oausatives formed with 8a, like {%*■$■ "to enslave"; ^■-i-*' "to
suspend"; oSJUcu*. "to complete"; and (from primae o or I) ^fo-f- "to
proclaim"; ^jlo* "to stretch forth"; wj&a "to promise"; (J) a*, "to
delay" ("in«).

(2) The few quadriliterals formed with sa ooiiJsp "to hasten";
Wis "to bring against"; i*flDQ-cp "to tend or nurse" (probably
from ^DK).

(3) Denominatives in n, like \<£*lty "to be possessed", from
^i*{ "demoniac" (adj. from IL*$ "demon"); ^rn v> f» "to sustain", "to
hold out".

(4) Denominatives in I: —fc^i from — j^qj "foreign"; <•»; 6ya oIksiovv
from '—4*? oltcsTog (from {K*a "house").

(*) This form is at an early date disfigured in many ways.

§ 181. — 131 —

(5) Denominatives formed by reduplication of the 3* d radical, like
jjai. "to make a slave of" (Ifai.) ; fijvj. "to wrap in swaddling clothes"

(B) Reduplicated forms like Ha^tJ "to chew the cud" from 111;
iioaU "to become stupid" from "tia.

(7) Reduplicated forms like "Vysa "to complicate", and i-1^4^
"to drag", from ^a, Til ; "sjia*} "to shake" ; and pjjoj "to raise up"

from »n, an.

(8) Forms like j -j .rr> "to maintain", "to nourish", from laa; ^uoi-l.!
"to be wreathed", from ip»; ^1! "to loan upon a staff" (I^qJl.).
And so too, others of all sorts.

To these may bo added simple Denominatives like ,vi\l. "to teach"
from i g , oSS I "disciple"; ^£**> "to pledge", from the Assyrian borrowed-
word )laAio "pledge" ; k^sSjJ-J "to become a proselyte", from the Jewish
word Jja-4^; I-? 20 ? "t° give form" (i^a&i), &c. ; and, along with these,
even compounds like *juval.[ "to become man", from JAS[ t-a; o^ f "to
be an adversary", from ) j-inn\ ; (from )|=>qjo + X + »), &c. Along with
these Quadriliterals there are many also from Greek words, like ^J^o
"to accuse", from Karyyopog; *flo£kjs "to remove", "to depose", from
az&alpsat;, &c; • • "fc mV "to rob" from JLi^.mV X^a-Hjc.

The Quadriliterals have an Active form, and a Reflexive form :
^^H>. "to roll" (trans.), ^^^.tj "to roll" (intrans.) ; jViS^ "to teach",
jaaS^Uf "to be taught"; wjij "to estrange", ^.^jjjU "to become
estranged"; vxjojt "to notify", ^fo^j>.( "to understand, or know", &c.
Many appear in the reflexive form only.

§ 181. The inflection is exactly that of tile Pad anil correspondhiff mnua.
Ethpaal, except that in this case the two middle consonants take the
place of the one double consonant, thus: ^4^^ Ifte ^%£> ^V*^!"'

v?te"V*; Impf. "^vvi, vo.'i^^j; Impt. "^j**, <JH,*J}.;

Part. act. ^j**>, )}~ !s ^>; pass. "H^ . >kj**; lllf - "^ss^
{Nomcn actionh (j-^oi § 123).— Reflexive Vsj^-lik^f^U; Impf.

M^u ^o^pj-tj; impt. x^4; Part - ^^v*-*^ JkW^;

Inf. oi^-V

vorlis.

— 132 — §§ 182. 183

It makes no difference whether the 2 nd letter he a o or a -., as,
for instance, in » A . m "to support" ; *^>ajt "to announce".

Those which end in % follow entirely the analogy of the Pael of
tert. — , e. g. i. Syi « "to complete", k,Avr, k ■••><»■• (2 nd sing, m.) ,
K. Nyi« (1" ! sing.), oJ^jajt ; Impf. (J-oju, ,o^»-iju ; Impt. )jvi «.. — Ileflexivei
i^sootk*.!, Jt-,.A*>K»[, &e. Of an Impt. of the Reflexive of such verbs I
know only the forms u^taUf) (u^alj?) and — aii.J.1 ( a ) ; and these
do not end in a, as one would have expected.

iimtnitmi] § 182. In like manner several Quinqueliterals also appear. To tin s

class belong first, verhs which repeat the two last radicals, like jnNvVSnl.{
"to have had dreams", from )4i\ <"< "a dream", and .^i^jj*. "to stir up
fancies", the reflexive of which, ^Jr^Jkj».£ "to have fancies", (from
J-^jj* "a little lamp", a borrowed-word from the Persian) occurs fre-
quently. Farther, words occur like -lojujlj (!ju.) "to show one's self off",
"to swagger". The inflection of these verhs is quite like that of the
Quadriliterals, except that here it is generally the first consonant whic.l i
is without the vowel.

Bern. Detached words like ^»\val( "to he at law" (Jj-j ^*>--») ;
-Aj-^xaLI "to he a KvfSepvtfrift" , and even ciaj^iaU "to he an enemy"
(J££j Va), and ^as^sl! "to he a xpitiTiawf" are to l)o regarded a.s
affected malformations, which in no way belong to the language.

LIST OF ANOMALOUS VERBS.

List of § 183. (1) **ujia.[ "to find" (Aphel) instead of ^xi.ajU; i

Yoiii. -""-J?- 1 -? (Part.), n uii». Only the Part, passive is transferred to the Peal :
^( 3 ). A new Aphel, certified only in later times, appears perhaps
\\ "to cause to find" Job 7, 2 Hex.

0) LA84HDI, Anal. 20, 28 (6 Oodd.).

(') Gregor. Naz. Carm. II, 28, 21- but lni.ll in Testam. Jesu Chriati 104, 12.

( B ) So ^i* "foedw" (adj.) from *a* "foedare" &c. A Peal -j* in this ox*
in a similar meaning does not otherwise occur. The forms given by Payne-Smith:
4158 all belong to the Pael. fj>« is properly, perhaps, a Shaphel of 135.

§ 183. — 133 —

(2) l^l "to come". Impt. ll (with loss of the I and with a), f. — L;
pi. oL, f. ^4 (^).— Aphel -Lf. Ettaphal -^J.^.

(3) ^o)j "to run". Impt. ^iotf 1 ).

(4) Ml "to go". The "^ falls out (§ 29), as often as it would
otherwise have to follow a vowel-loss ;, and take a vowel itself, thus
&£.}{ (l Bt sg.): &^£ (3 f. sing.); v q.^JLj; jjjj; ^%, &c, but k^.%
,ofc£».J[ ( 2 ) &e. Impt. "\.J (with falling away of the I and with e), ^*\;, oXJ,
^■^J. Only the Peal occurs.

(5) »oNrr> "to ascend". Thc\. is assimilated to the irn, whenever the
latter stands in the end of a syllable and the former comes first in the
one immediately following. These forms, namely Impf. and Inf. Peal,
Aphel and Ettaphal, look just as if they had been derived from pD3,

tllllS: J3.£QJ, .Q-CLCQ.J, . & Qb3, iO^BUO ; lCLDd!, &sHCd(. J1XS.J, JXOUO. " fimw

oarpLKi,, &c. (Pael and Etlipaal are regular JC^flp, ja£^^j»{.) The Impt.
too runs as if from pDS (§ 173 C): *axp, ojuoo, ojam (^ojuap), ,*ii.cp.

(6) o5»- "to give" (with poets also dissyllabic, thus oov^ doubtless)
loses its ot in the forms ooi.;*, K=S».* ; wlbo^, o^om, oi- (u£ou),
^oft^joi-., ^l^ao^j, ^o^; but lb%, V?°^f (* ne East-Syrians throw it
out in those forms also, § 38). Impt. o£(, o.aot, ^aot (the a occurring
on account of the guttural, by § 169). Part. act. o£t_2, JL=>©*-; — pass.
o-ch-. For tho Inf. (oidy as Inf. absol., along with forms from ao^)
*»cjV»; but usually a *^,A&, from bt\i appears instead, which also
supplies the Impf.; one says only *\J^j, ^aVftu, &c. — Ethpoel is
regular, oo*-lj, Kao^-U, &e. No other conjugations from oo^ or ^.&j
are in use.

(7) ).lx> "to live". The Perf. is regular: JLU>, IS-Lo, &*ja>, &.***>, o*aj,
o-kii, ^6K**i>, ^*-i.j-». — So too tho Impt.: oJLu, uJju, o*x>. But the Impf.
is formed as if from a verb mail. yum.'. JLuj, JL&l,, vjuuj, ^oa>J. (and no

(') The pronunciation hat with tbe falling away of the r appears to he known
neither to the ancient tradition of the East-Syrians, nor to that of the "West-
Syrians.

( 2 ) In BnnNSTEm'fl Johannes are varying forms like Vfl*&., \*^$, &o. which
have e, alongside of those like 'VjJLoi^, &c. which have t-z- (§ 174 B. Mem.).

— 134

§ 184.

doubt k J,mj ) x^&h)- -^ ow ^ l * s rea ^Ly passes &to the form of verbs
primae I: even at ;i pretty early date there is found written JLu|i, and the
later "West- Syrians at least have JLuI, JLlJJ, &c. The Inf. too is JLuio
(JA*>, JLSJUo).— Part. JLA f. JLLi; pL ^ or ^.JU, f. ^J>( 1 ). The Aphel
too is formed as if from Dictl. (/cm.: wj&f, ^**-»(, o-*-*^; JAii J^^ps °-*^?
(Part, pass.); ofAao {Nomen aff&iMs tyjMSg). The mode of "writing which
is preferred for these Aphel forms is A-u)S ; JLuJbo, &c (§ 35). So with
the Ettaphal ^jiil{.

(8) loot "to he". The Perf. loot, k-oof, &c. is quite regular: as
an enclitic, however, it loses (v. §§ 38; 299) its of: Jo©), too), &e. The
Impf. also is usually quite regular: Joom, (ooi^, <ooo}i, &c. ; still, the
following secondary forms occur, in which the o has fallen out, and with
no difference of meaning: |om, Jott, «o©M, ,o©it, ^*o»t (2 sing f.). Even
the first two forms are far less frequently employed than the full forms,
and .the others still less frequently, in particular the last one. Notice
alongside of the Part, foot, J£oot "heing, becoming", the Part. pass, loo*,
JLioot, pi. ^*oot (Emph. st. JL-oot) "existing" (or "created") and the verbal
adjective ^.oo), (JL-o£) "been" (§ 118).

Verba Tritb.
object-
aufiixoH.
(a) Willi
■trong ter-
mination.
Leading

VERBS WITH OBJECT-SUFFIXES.

§ 184. V. siipm § 66.

The l at person of the verb cannot have the suffixes of the 1"* joined
to it, nor the 2 nd those of the 2 nd . ( 2 ) There is no suffix of the 3 Id pi.;
the separate ^qjI, or ^JJ supplies its place.

«-*ot, — which comes in room of o+_- after a vowel-ending, — becomes,
with a, wSJA— ; with i it becomes woio.-JL.; with e, ^-»©to-w_L (§ 50 A. (3)).
Before Suffixes, k- of the 2 nd sg. m. Perf. is modified into k-\
wfiw of the 2 nd sg. f. Perf. into «&.;

^- of the 1"* pi. Perf. into -L;

(*) Not to be confounded with the adjective ■*£, JX&, &c. "living", "aotivo".
( 2 ) The only exception known to me is the poetioal expression ui*u>N "that I
might see myself", Ephr. II, 506 C,

§ 184. — 135 —

the ending ^o, <o (<ot) into Jo, Jo (Jot);
tlie ending ^*-i- into J-.JL (more rarely < \ > 1) ;

the ending ^— into J-L;

tlie ending ,*-! (^L) into -L_l (J-4) ;
ami tlie 3 pi. f. Port', is made to end in a.

The a of these forms is wanting, however, before the suffix of the
2" d sing. f. o-a— , which here preserves its e, (prohably also in the 3 rd pi.
f. before the suffix of the 2 nd pi.). — Secondary forms also occur in which
the suffix of the 3 rd sing. m. (ot_L) retains the e.

The forms of the Imp!", which end in the 3 rd consonantal rad. (3 sg.
in. and f. ; 2 sg. m. ; 1. sg. and pi) assume an I before the suffixes of the
3 rd sing. ; the Xinpt. sing. m. takes an a or an at before all suffixes, when
it onus in a consonant.

Attention should be paid to the distinction between I and I in the
different persons of the verb. Only the East-Syrians, however, are con-
sistent in this matter; the "West-Syrians frequently give a lianl sound
even to the 1. of the 3 rd sing. fern.

The verbal forms are least altered before the suffixes of the 2 nd pi.
(^Q-o and ^Aja).

Seeing that these suffixes ^ and ^ are treated entirely alike,
and that, besides, very few vouchers are found for the latter, I leave
it out of the Paradigm. Por the forms of the Impf. which end in the 3 rd
rad., the 3 rd sing. m. may suffice as their representative; for those in mi,
the 3" d pi. m.; for those in an, the 3" d pi. f.

I mark with an asterisk (*) those forms, of which the accuracy
does not appear to be fully established.

§185.

§185.

REGULAR VERB

Perfect Peal.

Sg. 1".

Sg. 2. m.

Sg. 2. i

Sg. 3. m.

t J ^?

,r^&?

o.vs Ajs

3. f.

oji^O

y&5^

^ii^

2. m.

wjKV$*o

—

—

2. f.

oJ-kSk!j§.0

—

—

1.

—

yLv^,

"-?V^S-°

PI. 3: m.

i . ti-|\ A n

yd^jp

' ' 7*^ A 9

3. f.

i.lS^D

y^i?

*i»4^js

2. m.

ojJo&^j§ua

—

—

2. f.

>ji^j>

—

—

1.

—

yi^

V.=4^

Impf. Peal.

Sg. 3. m.

;^^oj

y^"*

udfeAoi

2 m

(

..iN^ot.

».1.S o fcjol

2. f.

1 1 1 i N ^-ot

—

—

PL 3. m.

■ ■I'm^^nT

yjo^.^oi

t*AJnS ^n)

3.1

.. t!^. A ni

yK£jiJ

-"..■jjSj-ni

Impt. Peal.

Sg. m.

i.l.S.n^o

—

—

f.

i . i ."S n ^D

—

—

PI. m.

{

—

£

{

*u^.a^i>

—

_

i.li.N nfcji

—

—

Inf. Peal.

oJ^JUj)

V^^P

" i ;>&"ii >

Pael

ujlo^^nv>

^Id^JO

wploN^nin

§185.

WITH SUFFIXES. (Peal.)

Sg. 3. m.

Sg. 3. f.

PL 1.

PI. 2. m.

ot^-fr?

j^Af

„<S^

^0.4^0

wlks*!gj>

«^4»

v^*°

^ttjl^^O

wo^.^gj>

o|k^!gj>

vl^i*

—

_5|a"te>^D

6fc.ki^§J>

^^4*

—

«4^^

OlK'iJjjO

—

v a-ok^j3

— OIO^JD

6»0ilftjj>

v -"^?

^C^A

-"pS^-S

**%4?

, ."***

*v?-4 i 4 ii

wot-jbk^Jg-o

6v5btiv^.o

^JO^^O

—

wOjJ-I^Jj)

6*i-)b^>

^_L&5*Igj>

—

opAig-o

—

<ijxi^o

1

ot.Nftni

^4^

"f^ ^ t Q '

r

oto-^4, oi^t^-ot

1 ^"^l

^o^.d^|

i

<»l-^4

^i^ol

-

i

o^Io.'s ^ n i

bpcii^aJ

^Ja'^.^J

^oajoN fc n i

i

^■w i N ft n i

oti^QJ

A^""

\n -i N j-oi

^.S^cl^jo

ot.Noftj

tjV^

w 6*0.^0.^.0

ovS n^a

^°-fr°

—

i

—oia^£o_o

f otn'N ^o r*

1 v °''^' a f
1 ^J*^"

—

_ 9 V* t *

—

f

-oV^-a^jo

J *o£}.o-£.i>'
| 6tl^.o-4ob'

1 <J-*<^

—

wS^J 'N a^o

—

aisfrnw

6j^*2.

^34^

jCL^i^nio

o^c-ij^jo

^{ro

^ri't'ftyn

vO-ntn^'igl"

tiona
1'orfect,

— 138 — §§ 186. 187.

on..™- § 186. On the Perfect: For the 3 pi. m. there appears also before

suffixes, although rarely, the lengthened form in un(a), as ~S>. i n v i nn
"they laid him"; oJJoif-u (no douht ojJo»Jjl>) "they encompassed me": —
Overbeck's 'Ephraim Syr. &c.'137,9; yic£>j»^ "they entrusted thee".—
Julianas 90, 25 ; ylo n i , i "they gave thee suck" Jao. Sar., Oonstantin
v. 402 Var. (of. § 197). — In the same way there occur for the 3 pi. f.
forms with en(a), like oti^-j* (also written opfii*, which has been
inaccurately understood as wifa-^l hardly perhaps to he pronounced
wLfaJj.).

For the 3 ia sg. f., with suffix of the 2" d pi. there is found as a
variant for ^ijakj^a "conceived you" Is. Bl, 2, the doulitless more
original v uk.i^3 (from the intrans. ,^J-=»).

The 3 ,d pi. m. sometimes remains without ending liefore the suff.
of the 2 nd pi.: ^^(East-Syrian ^jSs. § 174 A) Judges 10, 12 "they
oppressed you" ; and .oji.us*} irdpttfcm i/M?, Acts 15, 24 (also Hark.).

maim § 187. The trifling variations from the Paradigm, which are called

for in Intrausitives, in certain weak roots, and in the Pael and Aphel,
are shown by the following examples, to the analogy of which the^other
forms also give way: Intransitivcs; otkiaiS "she loved her"; ojki^a
"she conceived me".— Weak; 6iS-uJ "he held her"; vaa^-'i "he met you";
ujtfij "she held me"; ,{X. "begat us"; yi,^.:"sho brought thee forth";
^ask^r.; "I knew you" ; fxLf* "they knew thee" ; owjot- "he gave her" ;
yilw- "I gave thee" (§ 183); ^JLf. "he begged thee"; f<*±.l* "they
begged thee" (others— yv.**. f**-i*> ct - § 171 )'> v?-?U." 110 hela ' A
you"; «k*uy (others— otikaajop § 184) "she sot her"; ujkjooi "thou
didst set me"; .jkjMp "I set thee"; ^i-SMp "I set you"; ^owiisp,
-SvJaim "they set liim" ; ov^-1 "he dug it (f.)"; oik"*? " BU6 dashed
it (m.) in pieces"; oi^jsjj "I desired her"; -wot^ "they dragged
him forth".

Pael and Aphel: oii^a "he blessed him"; ^i-o "he received us";
uji "he ordered you"; oi£*j| "he reached him, or came up with
him"; -t^~ p "she received him" ; ujkai^ "she dipped mo"; <f&^*£
"I strengthened thee"; ui-iw^J "thou (f.) didst make me angry";

of varia-

§ 188. — 139 —

^Q-akxjo^ "I made known to you" ; ^ajiis^ "we blessed you" ; ^o n K fcj
"we made known to you"; wo^Jotaa^*.! "you delivered liiin up";
o»<££.Ka "tliey deflowered her"; - .^. A~ ■ "they (f.) praised him";
v otiotj "made (3 pi. f.) us astonished" ; — ot ./nil "found (3 pi. f.) liim";
©t-^jol "he made liim ascend" (§ 183); ^a^as! "I led you forth"; —
o-il)U=> "thou comfortedst me" (§ 172 A); _o)oJUa^ "polluted (3 pi.)
liim"; ^o^^JUk. "they asked us"; — ot-^-^J "he raised him up"; oik-a^
"tliou didst disturb her"; wV**?i " s ^' e disturbed thee"; wot nvi . n t "they
raised him up", "established him"; ■ *5^So do*3^ "they persuaded him". —
■ ■ *^r ■■? "he loved me" ; u_>rxa-ki| "thou lovedst me" ; ^o^r^a-il "I loved
yttu"; woio.i-^1 "they made liim eager"; oiNv 1 "he introduced him";
o_sos£ij "tliey introduced thee (f.)" ; ^oi.^.! "I introduced you (pi.)".

§ 188. On the. Jiiiiii'ifed: The a 1 " 1 form of the 2 1 " 1 sg. m. accomo- oath,
dates itself entirely to the Impt. sg. m. (§ 190). It serves properly to p * "'
denote prohibitum (with JJ "not"), hut it stands also in other uses, just
as the original form stands also in prohibition.

The 2 nd sg. f. also takes before suffixes the form .~u_: thus,
. . i ; «>rfl "thou (f.) dost hunt me" ; woio.T.n;;!. "thou art justifying him" ;
■S» ■!■ n« ul "thou art choking her".

The forms of the miff, of the 3 rf sg. m. <*_ and -oto^ alternate
without distinction in the cases concerned. With f. suff., forms like
ovV^-oj in place of o^^JiJ, &c. occur more rarely.

For -wo* there occurs in the Codex Sinaiticus — <*- (how pro-
nounced?), interchanging with the usual forms, e. (J. uai .Nnil "I take
liim" (— . .g ^.N.w. 1)- ^cx— ujiaj "finds him"; ^.ot.aa. m i "I place him";
wov-hujSI "I pity him", &o. So wot-JOyj "judges Mm" Isaac I, 242
v. 397. Isolated cases of -wo used instead, occur in the Cod. Sin., e. g.
woio^ju "gives him power" (= -oi a . 'flN j i ); so ~«oji.(i "we con-
strain liim" Vita St. Antonii ed. Schulthess 11 paen.C)

(') There i» an additional example there of such a form. The editor draws
attention,— in the Introduction p. 5, Bern. 8— , to several others in the cod. D of the
Vita Alexis.

— 140 — §§ 189. 190.

The very rare forms in o_ instead of Jo* before suffixes are hardly
certain, like nnw*' "they support me" Apost. Apocr. 316, 4 ab. inf.
and ," t" »;; ■ according to Martin in a Karknfisli gloss of a Parisian
Codex of .Tor.
E*»mpie« § 189. Examples of variations!^): With a: ^d-o^jji "he takes you

°tLlT" away"; ^oa^M "I break you"; ,CLa.a.m{ "I take you"; o*-i-c°! "*
take her"; wSio^njkJ "I kiss him"; cxJoS-^- 1 "keep (3 pi.) him";
bti-%1 "thou (f.) plantest her"; — >-=■>-'•{ "I S' ve tnee <£)"i ^■ V k U "■"■
give you (f.)"; — ,04^.6-0!^ "she eats you"; — 6to-.jj->| "I hold him";
^.o^Jo't^J "they hold him"; 6»jo1Ui "they inherit it (f.)"; otiai.>| "you
know her"; — -oto-VM (-010-^4*.!. § 34) "I beg him"; uoio^. JU.1
"you beg me, or ask me"; — i^jJo;! "I judge thee (f.)"; -oio_Jo£j "wo
judge him"; v?-* 10 ^ "* J ucl S e T0U "; >-aj<"ofJ "they judge thee (f.)";
wS^oji "they (f.) hsten to him"; -SjJoaLxoj "they place him"; —
oi-ijJ "lusts after her".

Pael and Aphel : ^i^=»-> "blesses us" ; .j^i-l "thou causest me to
dwell" ; wj^iil "I gather thee (£)" ; ujvioUoj "they give thee (f.) gain" ;
0| ;„ iqjji, ^StJaMajL) "they glorify him"; ^Uiaj}i "they (f.) glorify
thee" ; ■•■ l -?^*j, "thou ( f -) provokest me to anger" ; ^vajpj "lie brings
tidings of good to you"; ^daf^i "baptises you"; — o*as| "I cast Mm
out"; ,i.sjan&j "they cast you out"; (OuaJoJLS^j "they comfort you"; —
ySjJju "ho asks thee" ; ^-w-.-inN ) « 1 "they ask him" ; ^a.XJLi.1 "I ask
you"; — ys^ "I teach thee"; , n^\ "I teach you"; — ^-.ot n . in . n l "I
establish liim" ; — — So^jj "lie awakens him" ; ^V* 3 "they (f.) awaken
us"; ' "■»' "he establishes you"; otin vi • fi 1 "they establish him"; —
uimiL "thou direotest me aright"; ij|.S»ji "he profanes it (her)";
P H-J.J "thou (f.) lovest him" ; i.ii.j\l "thou (f.) vexest mo" ; o»io-ojji
"they shatter him (or it) in pieces".
o« maim- § 190. A. On (he Imperative: Besides the two forms of the pi. m.

a»dtha°and notea in tll ° P arali igm, there are other two secondary forms occurring
sing. a. ^ere an( j there, as, for instance, wot noii-n "leave liim", and ^5|„>in f.nT>»

Impf.

(!) For 2 nd form of the 2 nd Bg. m. v. on the Impt. § 190 0.

§ 190. — 141 —

"sacrifice liim" (v. under F). There are some traces found of a form of
the sg. f. like u, ii . S dj.j or oven uj,. i . S 6-^-b.

B. The sg. m. always retains the vowel immediately before the
3 rd rail., thus not merely in _«^j.o^.jo; .. i .v i n^ "hear mo"; ui-jot^.
(East-Syrian i*L.;e*v. § 174 G) "think on me", "remember me"; 5f-»i'
"Ioto her"; w-^a) "huy her"; -Sm;=j». "make him": — -S»*sCC "learn
it" (and of course ot^^rb "place her"; -ot^,'oi£ "curse him"), Ac.,
hut also in the Pad and ffllipaal, as ^SU&iL "fix his hounds" : w^J
"ohserve her"; ...i,^ "teach me"; ^JL;? "comfort mo"; w^.^&
"cherish her"; -5U^*| "deliver him up"; vJ-^-!°! "make known to
me"; ot^-joi "make known to her"; ua^j^jI "lead me in".

So too verbs piimae i and o, with falling away of the 1" rad.:
-St-J=d*, ■ ,■■;■"- "kiss him", "kiss me"; u^ "follow me"; »^J»
"take her" ; ^-^"draw me" ; c*ow "give her" ; w^^ioi "give lum"( 1 ) ;
— o^oj-> "acknowledge him".

C. Exactly the same vocalisation holds good also in the 2° d form
of the 2** sg. m. Impf. uAjj>6va| "thou deliverest me"; 6v-oa.u4 "thou
art choking her"; -S^iiS^ "thou lovest him";— 6t*3oLL "thou art
drawing her"; w°t*>U " tll0u S iTCst him" ;— »o*«p6^ "thou sprinklest
mc ». ...>.\. l "thou deliverest me up"; »i. fflS .l "thou teacliest me" ;
^{aol "thou destroyest mo"; <ji^4 "thou leadest us in", &c.

D. Such a vowel, however, is not found in the shorter form of the
pi. m. Notice that the vowel « stands here, in the Peal, even with verbs
which have a or e in the Impf. and Impt. : e. g. -wo^aoj "take ye him
away" ; -«>£=&£ "make him" ; ^oisooi. "hear ye mo" ; -5|ot»o| "say
ye of him" (and of course -SoJo| "judge ye him" ; "^"^ " cmRe y°
her"), &o.~ Pad and Aplid: ojo^fl "save mo"; -woloU "males him
secure"; ■ .5 W£a$ "tako him"; ^&°i\ " load us m ™y"; -w^ ! " loil(1
him away"; w«a!ai>J "cast him out"; -Sojia "comfort yo him", &c.
But in -owjJU»[ "put shoes upon him", a vowel is of course-needed for

O Barh., for Ex. 22, 26 and 1 Sam. 21, 9, would have -»>A«, but that is
hardly correot.

— 142 — § 191.

the I (§ 34). This is the formation adopted by some writers even in the
case of very short forms wotoaoi, otaaot "give ye him", "give her" ;
oia^-co "take ye her"; while others say — otaao), otaaot; and even
otoaoLCD (— ofoiaojo) occurs.

So too in the sg. f. of Pael and Aphel there should be no vowel
before the 3 rd rad., thus : ui.<*Ai, "praise me" ; — oto-Xt-»- "entice him" ;
—ota»uoA»i "suckle him"; ui*y>ojii "cause me to hear"; still we fijul also
i*i*xc*jl; u i -> w *l; - *")" -^■'^ P "take him"; and in fact this corresponds
to the vocalisation of the Peal (as wota-fojaj "hold him"). Of. the flue- ■
tuation between uA*m*$t and wuia&*& "believe me" (§ 197). Thus
wota*i»5t (others — oto*~loi), and 6m^£ "preserve her". — For a longer
form in ina as in the Impf. v. § 198 A.

E. Altogether, only a few examples occur of the pi. f., as —oi^Aj*.
"praise him" (without any vowel before the 3 rd rad.), or of the longer
form wxLlo£ "listen to me".

F. In the pi. m. in iin(a) two forms stand overagainst each other
in the Peal, — the more usual one, like ujjo^oo ""bury me" ; woUio^uot
"take him"; ■■ i''"^v"*n "hear me",— and the less common one, with the
vowel before the 3 rd rad., like <— uoidajs; <-S.Jiax.aaj "slay him";
, r « t ts^n-y! "taste me". The forms pHwae i follow the second of these
two modes, like oJ,'»o,q tv>, wSnioaJp "take mo", "take liim"; — oUjo^,
ovSotX "preserve him", "preserve her" (of. in addition o-iioioj "listen to
me"; — 6*Jqjoj "judge him", &c.). The vowel is always retained in the
Pael and Aphel: ■ii°m s tjn "receive me"; o^ofc&i "guard her"; uoia^joi
"make known to me"; wofJoA^SS "clothe him"; woM-Soajgtj "cast ye
him out".

G-. For w5»*tl (sg. m.) the East-Syrians write wo^. (§ 84 B).

on tin § 191. On the Infinitive : lu the Peal of. farther oi^Aao, y>V^P

infinitive. ([to ^ e jjgj."^ **to give thee"; 6*2t» "to juilgo her".

Occasionally forms are met with, wluch, following the analogy of the
Impf., insert an I before the suff. of the 3 rd sg. m.:— -oiaXmcp "to take

§§ 192. 193. — 143 —

liim" (in place of o £s . n a v> ) ; w5to.*s, ;q^> "to pay him" ; >S ■ 5} a A "to set
lior free"; wota*aj*,lap "to enchant f) him".

The forms of the Aphcl, as o^c&jjQdp, &c. correspond to those of
the Pael; in verbs Mediae o, we have iaal^o "to lead thee back", &c.

§ 192. Verbs tertiae <-. require special treatment. The a of the verba
3 rd sg. m. Perf. is retained before suffixes; and it is the same with the wit / t "
vowel endings of the root in the Impf. and Impt. On the other hand, *"^ n e *'
the % of the Perf. and the a of the Inf. pass into y, except before ^.a, ru]eB -
and *3>. Notice the transmutations of the diphthongs peculiar to
each: au into a(w)H of— (also written oo— , ooi— : East-Syrian
ot— , &c. § 49 B): iu into yu\ ai (Impt. sg. f.) into a(y)i wl — (or
written JS-1). For orthographic differences also with e in these cases,
v. infra.

§ 193. "We give the forms of the Perf. complete in the Paradigm, p*radi g m.
for Peal and Pael, and from the latter the corresponding forms of the
Aphel are easy to construct. Only we omit the 2 nd pi. f. (in ^t) which
can hardly be authenticated, but which at any rate follows exactly the
analogy of the 2 nd sg. m. (i. e. of the strong verb). In the Impt. we
require to cite the Pael forms for the sg. m. only. It is not necessary to
cite them, at all in the Impf. It may suffice generally for this section
of the Paradigm to note down one single personal form ending in J_I,
seeing tbat the forms with other endings follow the analogy of the
strong verb.

( J ) Ueop. 95, 22; Olemene 136, 18; Is. 37, 34, Hex.; Clemens HO, 13, 14 (twice);
three examples from the Codex of 411 A- D.

— 144

§193.

PARADIGM OF

VERB TEET. -
(Peal and

Perfect.

Sg. 1.

Sg. 2. m.

Sg. 2. f.

Sg. 3. m. Peal

"^Nte,

**.

<-*H*

Pael

'*±£> J **>

y 1 ^

"■fc^

3. £ Peal

.*jK'^ s&

jtVs.

"fSNs.

Pael

^^j^Ss

•^^

u^Kjik^

2. m. Peal

ujK-ij.,^

—

—

Pael

uJ^.^4^

—

—

2. f. Peal

cO-K^i.^

—

—

Pael

kU-ks^.^

—

—

1. Peal

—

*^%.

w^aK^i.^^

Pael

A

fV*^

^.s^^^

PI. 3. m. Peal

^°(^

ftk.

u -?°'K a

Pael

jni^^

7°^

U.^O.JiX^^

3. f. Peal

"***«%,.

r^^

"^^a*.

Pael

-j"^.

f^s.

"^i^

2. m. Peal

v*jJ6^**^^

—

—

Pael

ua3ofco^4^

—

—

1. Peal

—

y^^,

*^*^,

Pael

—

y^W,

**Tl*?^

Impf. Peal

. . I -N.^

?W

M.,n,*S,^J

Impt. sg. m. Peal

'^-is.

—

—

Pael

°^s»

—

—

sg. f. Peal

"■'-ik,

—

—

pi. m. Peal

*~>°Jk,

—

—

pi. f. Peal

- n *^»a,

—

—

Inf. Peal

^^8^

,A?

^eNis^

Pael

ujto.tS^n

jioi-^^jo

o^oLoi^i^O

§193.

itr>

WITH PRONOMINAL SUFFIXES.
Pael).

Sg. S. m. '

Sg. 3. f.

PI. 1.

PI. 2. m.

-°*^»

*>^,

r^,

v?4¥^

°*NW»

°t^*»

«*k

v^*-^.

"J^**.

oikX,^

vW^

v 4 * 1 ^,

"ij^

OlKji^

vVf^s.

^Q.A&.^£L

""t-^-^a.

<*^^

vW-**,

—

-suVV^,

«V^*»

vw^

—

-w^-k^,

^•^■-s*,

4^,

—

^0(0*^^^

ov^^a,

<&*«*.

—

""V^,

cxK^^

—

v^?^>-*&

mV^S,

61^.^^

—

v^?V^^»

-5)o^

oio)}^

^

« *k,

-5«*^,

wai^

v? 1 ^.

*^o ^n ?\^.

-ot* 2 ^,.

""•^^

t**K»

?

-wit^^

^Ss,

.<^

?

-SJo^-^j^,

otJol^^,

.JoL^

—

wO^Jok.-^^

ojibik-^!^

^joi^^

—

-=t- kL ^ ! ,

fcMH*

—

v^ 1 -^

-.o^i.-v;^

&0^

—

^k^W.

-oto^^

rfW

^■^^

-« <1 ^H 4!] .

<^,

-

"^^^

*¥^

^^,

—

^oiajl^

Hk

«jk

—

-orally

««^

«?«^

—

^ s ^ i *V«».

**%*=,

*^

—

^otA^

6fiX^>

, sN«S*

V^V^

otlaJL^^o

«Loi-*i.^o

vi"^^

^ojlnf S^p

— 146 — §§ 194 195.

on the § 1 94. On the Perfect: The t of the 2 nd pers. always remains hard;

Perfect.

the Bast-Syrians usually extend this process to the l 8t sg. also, except
in the Peal,— contrary to the ancient practice — while the genuine West-
Syrian tradition leaves the L soft in this position. Notice the forms of
the 3 rd f. sg. in the Pael and Aphel, which preserve the a, for which the
East-Syrians put a (e. g. oH^^ohl "she threw him", § 43 0).

Forms from these verhs of the 3 rd m, pi. in un(a) before suffixes
are very rare, the only cases known to me being the following two:
wopJojLu "they saw him" Mark 6, 49 S. ; and wo^*SoJLu.» "they scourged
him" Land II, 26, 11: on the other hand individual cases of the 3 rd f. pi.
in en(d) are somewhat oftener met with, like woi.JL.ju. "they (f.) saw him'
= — o+i#jj.

Forms of Aphel: o*^»^ "lie threw him"; v CLa.*^^o| "he increased
you"; ^L^ool "I adjured you (f.)"; 6ioiXoo[ "they rejected her"; —
^*i*a>i[ "he enlivened me"; ojL--uI "she enlivened me"; »*jk*.oi "thou
didst enliven me".

§ 195. On the Imperfect : The e before the Buff, of the 2 nd pi. is often
not expressed through — : ^o-ao-ul = ^q.jj.*q-u[ "I show you", &c. The
forms which do not end in JL_ follow closely the analogy of the strong
verb ; cf. ^.^.Jib^nJ "they call upon him", alongside of ofJb&uu "they
drink it (m.)"; ^joj-oj "they call thee"; waibj&j "they deliver thee (f.)";
s_.of*iijuui "they (f.) see him", alongside of o^-tijj "they (f.) revile him";
v t i ■?•»• &■[ "you (f.) call me"; 6ti*\.JLl "they (f.) bewail her"; — u.±i-^ol
"thou (f.) callestme"; woVA^L "thou (f.) bringost him up", and even
6**i-ju4 "thou (f.) seest her", which can only he 6m£J*4 (§ ^ 8 ^)-

Answering to the forms cited above (§ 188) there are found, without.
o, in God. Sin. a few like wo+*jlu{ "I soe him" (= wota*ju>£) ; wo^a-of
"I show him". And answering on the other hand to tho forms referred
to in the end of that section there occurs in Cod. I) of Alexis (Var. to
18, 17), as well as in the Sinai Codex of the Acts of Thomas (Burkitt
10, 11) -= "Wright's Apost. Apocr. 315, 3, ^oiojudJ "I see him".

Mem. A poet (in Barh. gr. I, 151, 19) says once — ot-**^ }) (in-
stead of uoia<^) "do not loose Mm", following the analogy of the 2 nd
form' of the 2 nd sg, m. in the strong verb (§ 190 G).

§§ 196. 196*. 197. — 147 —

§ Iflfi. On the Imperative: Longer forms of the pi. m. are found, ouwe
like o^Joo!;,*,, alongside of ujoo!^* "loose nie"; ijjolo.'v. (*jj6o.V for Impm "™-
proper ujJooq.V) "accompany me"; -o^Jol-ooi "heal him". Forms of
the 2*" 1 pi, f. without ii before the suffix hardly ever occur. Modes of
■writing are found like «iJLm.3 = ^iiais "cover (f.) us"; woVX(-^o "call
ye (f.) upon him". — For the T" sg. f. a shorter style of writing is found,
as uiTnal "give (f.) me to drink" = *±*%Ja.A.\.

As ill the Impf., so here also, forms occur without o, though very
rarely indeed: — o^** "throw him" (Lagardo, Anal. 11, 11), and ■ - ct -i \
(Wright, Catal. 897 7*, 19) "answer him" (for ~d)o~JjL, . -^ ■ ?■> ) Farther,
there occurs in the refrain of an ancient Church Hymn(') 4f'^
"answer her", a dissyllable, thus doubtless cn.jiv according to the
analogy of eH. Cs . o fa g.

§ 198*. A transition of verbs ferf. 1 to the formation of verbs teit. w> Tmnwan
is indicated by the expressions -atofe* "they comforted him" (Pert.), °'Jml"l
and "comfort ye him" (Iinpt); oioUa "comfort ye me", — which occur as '" V " A '

?™ •* tertiae *,

secondary forms of ^otoJLk, **joJia (cf. § 172 B). before

§ 197. The Qnadriliterals (taken in the wide sense of the term QmMiiter.
adopted above, § 180) bear themselves before suffixes also, exactly like tm*Z°
the 1'ael forms. A few examples will suffice: Pcrf. oifa^y. "he reduced her
to slavery"; yoi^ioi (or yoijjoj § 52 B) "they exalted thee"; -o)ot»**>
"were stubborn against him"; ~-.otJ6ISaM.ot "ye believed in him". With
un ^o»Jirt ra^ra~» "they tore him in pieces", ( 2 )

Impf. yip°Jl- (y»V»ji. § 52 B) "she raises thee up" ; . .oto p™'
"lie supports him"; ,o.a| ■j . noi "I support you"; . ,o>Jo£a^ju "they
enslave him", &c.

Impt. (with retention of the vowid before the last radical) ■ ■ ^■^•\ l »i
"set him or it forth"; uj^Jojt. "save me"; and thus too the 2 nd form
of the 2 1 " 1 sg. m. Impf. wo)- fcv «l "thou enslavesl him". — Plural uo;.=n.a>

(') Said to bo by Ephraim; in the Offtciwm Feriah of the Maroniios, for
Thursday, Noon, at the end (Itoraan edition of 1863, p. 365 sq. ; KesrmVn ed. of 1876,
p. 414 sq.). The refrain is repeated eight times.

( ! ) Overbeck 292, S6 (in four syllables).

Veibs
fore Suf-

— 148 — §§108. lOfl.

"suffer me", of course without the vowel; lint the usage fluctuates between
<■ i .Ty> .Pi and uqiivi ,o) "believe (f.) me".

The Quadriliterals which end in — correspond to the I'acl forms
of verbs tot — ; cf. ot^Nvn "perfected him or it (ra.)"; ^d^^bil "lie
nourished you" ; w-jaoifco "nourishes thee" ; wJ-C^.aajjJ "perfects mo" ;
. . i *%« *ft "tend me" (Impt.), &c.
B.»«iiye § 198. A. Of Reflexive verhs, only a few, that have hecome tran-

sitive, appear with suffixes: Of those ending in a strong rail., there occur
in particular +ail[ "to rememher"; ?o^-i( "to rememher"; •fi^ll "to
surround"; *a]g.^l.| "to put on"; -ajjjuLJ "to meditate on"; — and the
Quadriliteral ^jo^.a.1 "to recognise". Examples: Perf. of^JtLti; vjf??^ii
o^joSj*a.[; otL^a;l[ "thou didst rememher her"; .j^JjM "' remembered
thee"; 6pi-ojU; wS^Jjojj? "we provided ourselves therewith"; u-utt-ajU;
uJoJi-oU; jo»ji;).J; —Soi-jols^; otoi-oU (3 pi. f.), &0. Imjif. j^ojio";
uaJjfljL|; 6*Ja.^2j.fcd; 6t3oa^2j.iJ; ^Jot»jki; ^aj^Jeiiwjol^ju, &0, Tmpt.
sg. m. 6*-feD;l|; u-u^djIJ; sg. f. 6**^joKjl£; u-L.;»n*L£ and also uii. ; ifU
from the lengthened form (§ 190 D) (*) ; pi. u^ot^>}t{. Thore occur also,
however, with a strange imitation of the vocalisation of the Peal,
wotaiioil? and dfai*ai»U( a ), alongside of wojai^U and 6toi;..al.J.

Inf.', 6*la_a^3&>».

B. Of reflexives tertiae - we have ot,fii>W, c^iJ^-*-! "lie told
of him, of her"; ujoi*}LJ "they forgot mo" ; ot^-tv«.J "I tell of her".

w.

•xl § 199- VI "' s "i — properly somotlung like "existence" (ground-

form W«- of which the emph. st. jlKJ "the heing" rf S» is still unite
current as a substantive) — in practice passes completely ovor to the chiHH
of verhs. It combines with itself possessive suffixes, which are attached

(') Jacob of Sarug in Mart. IE, 242 middle.

( ! ) These forms are well authenticated by both East- and West-Syrians— Josh.
6, Ssq.; 2 Kings 11, 8; Ps. 48, 12 (in Hex. also), although the other form has likewise
good authority (Ceriani's Text).'

§199.

149

to the original endin
(§ 145 A). Thus:

—k.*! — X am.

Thou art,
+%+{ — Thou (('.) art.
w.otoK.| — He is.
6*JsJ| — She is.

in the very same way as to the ai of tlio pi.
KJ _ We arc.

f*ft-{

,a.}x-lS.J — You are.

^i.-.^-| — You (f.) are.

^och-J^J! — They are.

^ot-.ts.J — They (f.) are.

Besides this usage, K*{ may he comhined with the separate Personal
pronouns.— v. § 302.

"With a foregoing JJ we have K-| JJ or K*^- "is not"
form also takes suffixes, e. ff. woio^A. "he is not", &c.

The contracted

PART THIRD.

SYNTAX.

I. THE SEPARATE PARTS OE SPEECH.

Tb« .et.- § 200. In this branch of the subject we adhere to the division, which

rata parts

or .pa.ot. has already been adopted in the "Morphology", of all the words of the
oh*.™ ™' J language into Nouns and Verbs. This is a division, however, in which
<"•"•■ there cannot be any sharp line of demarcation. Participles, for instance,
which in origin belong to the Noun, must on account of their essentially
Verbal treatment be taken with the Verb ; and it appears a proper course
farther, to associate with thein in certain cases oven the Predicative Ad-
jective (§§ 254 D; 314).— With the Noun we again reckon Adverbs and
Prepositions; and the treatment of Copulative Conjunctions will come up
farther on in dealing with combinations of two or more sentences.

1. NOUNS.
A. GENDER.

A. Gander.

H.™. § 201. A real distinction betwixt Neuter (what is inanimate) ami

what has gender, is known to Syriac, only in tho interrogative pronouns
"what?" Ji, ,&, )!£, ,050, and "who?" ,&. In the short-hand use of tho
adjective or pronoun standing alone, the Feminine usually takes the
place of our Neuter: Thus, e. g. l^yj, "something else" Jos. St. 5, 7;

§ 202. — 151 —

> «_*oi "id quod"; Jjot "hoc"; (jot ^a^ "therewith, in addition to this"
Ov. 176, 5; Ijot ^> wo) "tliis however" Jos. St. 12, 11; low; |{.| "that
which happened" Moos. II, (i8, 25; JU^akjS>> ^? -oi ([x. At); ii kri xp«'«
kike HI, 42; cf. Aphr. 250, 19; {ka^ " tlle g ood "'. !V*** " tlie evil "
(iion. 2, 9 and frequently; HV-^-a= "properly", "in a fitting manner"

Apia'. 460, 5, &c. Of. casus like J A i ko i--^!? "and tnat which still

more .... can &c." Spic. 19, 10 (where the relative ) is construed as
feminine), and many instances in accordance with § 254.

But that the Masc. also is permissible in this case is shown, first
by the adverbial use of words lite i~aj». "finely"; <a^ "well"; *o
"ill" &o. (§ 155 A). This is farther shown hy instances like ,JL-*a jj
ol.~> £ o^, Aphr. 424, 22 or j»-a £ o% ^r- (jo Aphi'. 170, 13 "they
discern not good from evil"; and farther *a\ oi .=».$A. o! "either to
good or to evil" Spic. 3, 6 ; .a^. ^jj "crafty for what is good" Aphr.
190, 4; in the Emph. st. I^i- oi IjjbX <a.£pi JU "takes neither too little
nor too much" Ephr. II, 485 B ; l^Afo J^» <fM° "&ud J ucl g e wua * is
hateful and what is beautiful" Ephr. II, 316 0. Thus frequently •*..£)
"what is bad"; o^j "what is good", &c. —"the bad", "the good". "With
the Pronoun, cases like } Jiot "this is what" are not abundant (Aphr.
211, 8; 396, 3); but they occur often after prepositions, as in )ioi^.&
"on that account"; oil ^ "therefore". And ojoi "that is"; ,.) oj&
"but that is" — "namely" are of very frequent occurrence.

In the Plur. however the Fern, is exclusively employed: !ki%
"goods", "bona"; ^ot ravra (only construed as fern.); ^.w^-o ^oi"all

tliis"; ^oUt'l W«^«^- w " Iur > 1)otl1 ot t,losc " ■ A - 1 ' hr " 9 ' 1G ani various
other examples.

B. ABSOTA1TE STATE; EMPHATIC STATE.
§ 202. A. Originally the Emph. St. denoted the Determination [as B-itaoiute
did tile prefix il in Hebrew]: Sjte was "a ldng", N?^» "the king". But the p ^
use of the empli. st. became so prevalent in Syriao, that very scanty traces *£%,
now remain of its original and proper signification. This is clearly shown ££•___
by cases like ik&o, "a few days" Spic. 1, 1, and by the circumstance that a »..

— 152 — § 202.

very large number (if substantives appear now only in tlic cinpli. st.
Add to tliis, that the Abs. St., even where it still survives, may almost
always have the emph. st. substituted for it in the Substantive, and that
it appears repeatedly even in determined words. But if the difference
of meaning in the two states is in this way as good as lost completely
for the language, there are still many cases t 1 ) in which the abs. st.
appears in the substantive often, or indeed preponderatingly, on the
ground of its original signification. It occurs in the following cases:

B. (1) In several genuine Syriac Proper-names, which being deter-
mined in themselves required no determining sign. Thus names of local-
ities like <;?a*ii., ^»a-jj "Pillars"; ^j^+p (also l%«4o) — qmi ncSrill
"Eagles'-nest" ; »-j=k^ ia^ "Mountain of the Servants (of God?)"; ^ao
p^j "Image-town" (near Edessa, Jos. St. 58, 2) ; l«j^t "Thirsty Hill"
Auc. Doc. 73, 13, and many others ; but, along with these, many appear in
the emph. st. like JjoA "Wall" ; !^^o "Portress", &c. Names of Persons :
&*LL "Beloved" ; *.=>) "Patrioius" (together with JUi!) ; •* Jio "Senior" ;
Ji.ojuo "Justificata" (f.) &c; but here too the emph. st. preponderates,
as in l\a^) "Little"; JA^aao "Humble"; iZ\ "Brother" &c. Thus the
poets make use even of ^jiai "The Heavens" as a proper name, as in
Isaac II, 4 v. 32; 344 v. 1753 and in several other instances. Of course
foreign proper-names like xno^a &c. receive no mark of the emph. st.

Bern. Constant epithets of proper-names were retained in the Abs.
st. in earlier times : thus in the names of the Months still )o£x> w^t or
p-jj> 'I "TeSrl First" (= October); w^o? ,Ai4 "Kanon Second (—
January) &c.

0. (2) In distributive repetition: |L*a ]!•. ^4 "every year" Sirach
47, 10; Jos. St. 26, 18; joa, ^> pd- "from day to day" frequently; ,jaja
K *> "from time to time" frequently ; ^J|^. ^Jfx "at times" Aphr. 45, 5 ;
tH" <rff"?° *y *y?° "^^f ai^aya Jjyaaii ^djj ^.Ji^sp "numerous
are the laws in all lands of kingdoms, lands, and districts" Spic. 18, l(i;

(*) In the Plural and in the Abstract form in uth the Abs. at. occurs much
more frequently than elsewhere; the characteristic forms (in tn, an; w) may still be
fashioned here in every oase.

• 202. — 153

0=>!

'S **& " wit1 ' au y tiling" Aphl'. 308, 18; ^j» ^> ^j> "step by step"
Eplir. Ms. ]). 77 v. 98; )L;so )i.-^ "city by city" repeatedly; Ji-po £
li-t^J- "cerri vrokeut; sig ttoKiv" Mutt. 23, 34; jamalu pjw pfoi "he shall
be cut to pieces, limb by limb" Jul. 87, 17 ; t-jSi^ , y.^ - "on any pre-
text whatsoever" Ov. 221, B; Jaa. J£i*> Jsjo^a "in vexation from all
sorts of straits" Mart. I, 185, 12; uni^imi^j; "of all manner of kinds"
Aphr. 267, 2, and repeatedly; ^MXa ^JlXs ooot ^.A "they stood in
crowds" Addai 2, 12 &o. Yet tlio omph. st. occurs here also: (iaj ^>
)laiX "from time to time" Sim. 301 mid. ; Ikl^u «is». !ii.^» "city
with city" Is. 11), 2; f^*^ 11^^ "a loaf of bread a-piece" Judges
8, 5; cf. Matt. 2-1, 7; Ps. 1!), 3 &c. Matt. 24, 2 has in P. ajj. V^ ,s>j>
Xid-og ini Xi'Ow, and thus Aphr. 412, 17 ; but in S. the reading is JsJLo

I). (3) After VA, with Numerals and in similar connections: V£
^'jKjioo ^.v*a*.o ^v- 5 ! % ^6-^ "all good, beautiful and excellent kinds"
Aphr. 297, 8; o^J-iuVAa "with all zeal" Ov. 178, 7; ^liip V£ "all
])Ossessions" Ov. 166, 24; iwo; Via "with all caution" Prov.4,23; Via
^ii=> "with all evils" Prov. 5,14; ij^.^ >akj> Vi "every shoulder (f.) has
been stripped" Ezek. 29, 18 ; ill VAaj ^orbl VA "all remedies in every
place" Eplir. Ill, 251 A; ikai.} ^Ji. Via "in every time of distress"
Sirach 2, 11; Jla» V£ naoav ufaiav Matt. 19, 3 — and very often thus.
More rarely tho emph. st. occurs here, and particularly in the pi., e. g.
(Lij V£ "all the streams" Bccl. 1, 7; (Is-uowa VAX "to all believers"
Aphr. 202, 1 &c. For li'JLa VAX "to all pains" Aphr. 135, 3 there is
a variant ^J^VftS.

Along with numerals; (a) when the numeral precedes: t^o *aj it-u
,-ti.S Kapha /cai ipuxr/ /ila Acts 4, 32; j>\ ji ^> s| etid( ai/xaro; Acts
17, 26; v :vi\s ^il "two worlds" Eplir. Ill, 111 C; Ov. 135, 7, 8; u»i.
JjoisV^ k*a? yAn\v< ^t'lo ^j,T>> "the days of the twenty-two reigns of
Judah" Aphr. 84 ult. and very often thus; — (b) When the numeral
follows: (lit ^ia. irm i/crib Acts 9, 33; !Ji ^^j " a hundred days"
Aphr. 483, 4; IJ Avj « ^i«. "seven hundred years" Land II, 277, 3 &c.
In like manner also (Vs't <fc ||-ua "on any pretext" Ov. 187, 10; fiia
^&cl* & "on a day" Ov. 167, 26 &c. Even when strict determination is

— 154 — §202.

present, the Abs. st. may be retained alongside of the numeral: *^«
^_it- J-^'J "these four mouths" Sim. 276, 5; ^J£jool9 — jji, ^-&=» sv
ravratg rctl£ ovaiv ivroXalg Matt. 22, 40 (Aphr. 24, 4, 9); fc^t ^-of <*>
<Q-^o card rcov rpitiv irkrfym \tovtu:v\ liev. 9, 18 (Gwynn); Ifc^l <^?-®t
^*j&i?5 "these three righteous ones" Aphr. 453, 12; ,o.ii\v> ^tVt ^*^-«
^ .aXDl "these two powerful kingdoms" Jul. 106, 27 &C.

But in all these cases the Einph. st. is permissible also, and in
several of them it is much more usual, cf. {K*^.it ?t-»-»o *«aj (?-l» "one
soul (ahs.) and one mind (eniph.)" Moes. II, 72, 12; JLa ,-&£» "with ono
voice" Acts 19, 34; Jb£u&& \**\=> <r±* "one wise man" Aphr. 394, 12;
ft'j'ot ^oji "seven Irine" Gen. 41, 3 (v. 2 v ;oL ^ajt); JL»^a> ?©►&*. qaj
"ten thousand wicked names" .Jul. 76, 24 (together with ^*xa ooV
^.LiVafloo "ten thousand villanies and crimes" ibid. 34, 4) and countless
others. — l$±-l J^a- Ephr. Ill, 303 B; cf. Aphr. 481 sqq. wdiere JLUa.
appears oftenest with the numeral following, hut sometimes ^ii*.; so too
>&*! |>*X Juop*. §a$ &pag Ivdrrfi Matt. 27, 45 P. S., alongside of <zs>\
^X^ J t >x*.t ^rep/ 1 tvjv evdryv &pav ibid. 46. — J^-ao-o ^& +£> "one of the
stars" Spic. 3, 18. — For — v=*-!$^ J*^** ^^ <? "°f those three men"
Aphr. 16, 19 there is a variant J-^a^L , and the empli. st. in itself suits
the passage better.

E. Similarly, withjaaa "how much?" and "some": ,*l£j JUold "how
many times?" and "several times" — frequently ; ^^-vatd! Jaoj itoaaq
CTTUpiZag Matt. 16, 10; ^iV Jl^lo roaavra %ttj Luke 15, 29; so Sim. 348
mid.; hut JS\mn t JaLa "how much expense: 1 " .Jos. St. 15, 17; jj^f JUo-o
"how many wantons?" Sim. 344, where there are farther examples. Jb!oj>
f'ii-^J iroaoi fjLLG&tot Luke 15, 17 P. C, hut S. ^^*^j.

Sometimes also with JL|: ■"■■*| | JLv[ "what pain?" Spic. 40, 20;
o£j \\.\ ^ "on what thing?" Zingerle, Chrest. 407 v. 33 (Isaac);
^iij ,*^-4= "in what things?" Aphr. 8, 14 &c; hut jjfoo_a JLJ itoia
evrokvj Matt. 22, 36 &c; and ^§^o£, JLjLa h iroiot. $iovol<% alternates
with Ji^Xa* |L>Jh, Matt. 21, 23, 24 and 27 ; Luke 20, 2 (cf. C. and S.) ( x ).

(*) Similarly Jliio,o *A*£ JI& *'wliat Bort of use (aba.) and advantage (emph.)?"
Aphr. 204. 20, if the text is quite accurate.

1515

§ 202.

P. (4) Often, in negative expressions; ^opo-" JJj "without sparing"
Ov. 170, 8; ^ot^-Cl (|? "without sin (pi.)" Frequently; ,~a£ (It "without
number" frequently; <amo |> "without money" Ex. 2.1, 11; ami often in
this way with ((?; But ^i*>» J|;o Jam? )J» "without money (oinph) and
without price (aba.)" Is. 55, 1 ; aipj JU>o )U (|> "without trial (eniph.)
anil without admonition (abs.)" Aphr. 252, 2; !Ui*L-w Vj "without faith"
Aphr. 214, 1, together with cjrfr.ot )J} iW<l 20(>, 21, and frequently; and
thus the emph. st. is not imfrequently found with ^>. For U£= Vj urtxvog
Luke 20,29 sq., 0. aud S. have ^.la (Ij.— v jlai Kij. "there is no profit"
Prov. 10, 2; l^j. v j).ai Helir. 7, 18; p^=j<L^. ^Jp ! °*^- ^°*i d° " imA
let there he no remembrance of .Toroboam" Sirach 47, 23 (Var. (ii-so>);
(its)! uma l t-i>. "the world of deatli [or tlie abode of destruction] baa
no covering" Job 20, 20; ofj. ft-Sj. <•£*>>! "who has no pity" Prov. 17, 11
(and often with K^.); ^iai (J yof^o "and to no place do they go out"
Ov. 212, 14; -oioAZfX aoi. JU ^s. p^kao "and he answered never a
word to his judges" Aphr. 222, 8. Of. Luke 1, 33 and many a like example.
Thus farther — V-oJ-J Jj| y'p !%& "was not called the possessor of riches"
Spic. 40, 7. But the Emph. st. is still more used even in such cases.

Similarly in a conditional clause ^-Q^- *^*5s> *r? ^"^^ *" t ^ = , 4
"for if a wicked man happen to meet us" Aphr. 297, 1 ; this however is
unusual.

G. (5) In cortain adverbial expressions like ^^j= "on foot";
jL-i^. jl.> £ "from one end to the other"; ^a>a "once"; ^S-]f> and
^.vi^S "for ever"; ui^f, ^> "out of quiet", i. e. "unexpectedly, sud-
denly" (also J ?^? ^>) and many others. So mofa e> iDisv/xmi in various
uses Matt. 5, 3 V. (O. and S. different); 22, 43 P. (0. Jluo)^); Hiilox.
106, 9; Rev. (Gwynn) 1, 10; 4,2; 17,3; 21, 10 (the later version has
always JL>o;a).

H. (6) In some combinations the Abs. St. is always retained. Thus
oka IJof "the imago of the word", "the written text" (definite); )a£J vS . N
"a myPiinepw" (§ 146) (') ; au^j o^ koaQpuiro;; JLLjao k>Sai = iwnmoktg

Q) Indeclinable: ,»».! JvA. 11^1 May, Nova Coll. X, 341 a- Land III, 208, 28,
for which lino 20 has \>&A. I&M» ,ju«;l l&^L

— 156 — § 202.

Mart. 1, 100, 24 &c; and after these patterns later writers have formed
more of the same kind, as *JUt.=» ^."^a KwdvOpuTrol (as pi.) Ac. J*aa k*a
"damns iilormdis" sg. alts, st., i. c, "house of mourning", is assumed hy
the usage of the language to be a compound of a pi. emph. st., and takes
suffixes accordingly, thus: ■ --V* aa k*a &c.

I. (7) The Absolute State is farther found pretty frequently in other
scattered instances, particularly in fixed phrases. Forms in to— (§1 38)
especially incline to stand in it. And yet even in these the Emph. St.
is almost always the one which is found in actual use. Examples: ju, hJ(;
^•j, ^iiif lis, ™k (§146); pfrrn., ^ )o^«. "Peace!", "Peace he
to thee!", frequently ; &AjJga "in kindness" Aphr. 448, 15; oiaJ£ ^>
hj- g N J^|*" "from youth to the grave" (emph. st.) Ephr. Ill, 225 B;
^.j^? ^>ja "at another time" Aphr. 461, 10, for which ibid. 458, 15 JAaJa
Jii^u!; i-iu jpfa ^»-'f3 "redeemed by precious blood" Aphr. 260, 10;
!^_}iiiai» l^aiajao iotSs (.a; l^oniiiot oi-oija wj^ "keep thou with care
faith in the Son of God, and with purity (emph.) baptism" Jac. Sar.,
Thamar v. 407; ^rU paJ*. "for another day" Ov. 136, 2; and thus ^U
frequently as a substantive "another" [ein Anderer] e. g. Matt. 11, 3;
John 4, 37; 5, 7; 21, 18; 'V >a^ v.<V°°? '9°*J " a S 00c l remembrance be
to . . ." Aphr. 305,2;'?*. -Jol "glory [be] to ... " frequently, (along with
'X )>'< -in« "glory [be] to . . .") ; i*L |; ^'■«'S. J^k^. JiJ "the rich man is
anxious about years in which he is no longer to be alive" Aphr. 268, 1 ftc.ft
Philox. has frequently o>o); "spiritual" (like .-uota v. sub section G , 5), e. g.
29,8; 500, 5. Much more frequently than elsewhere, the abs. st. is used
in the Old Testament, especially in certain books, under the inflnanae of
the Hebrew text and the Targim tradition . C ases like ^S^ t -j% D'lOy 13J)
Gen. 9, 25 ; ^.o^ o^v Dv6n bx Ps. 50, 1 ; 84, 7 ; 136, 2 ; IfOj »aj, Wf» VH Ps.
104, 4 <^4j ^8^>)HS«1|5 ftb« Dan. 4, 8, 0, 18; 5, 11 hardly conform to
the genuine Syriac usage. On the other hand tho rather more frequent
use of the abs. st. in so ancient a writing as the letter of Mara bar Sora-
pion (Spio. 43 sqq) must he regarded as a gonuine record of antiquity.

K. But when the realisation of the difference in meaning botweon

(*) For u&l Jl***» "with bodily strength." Spio. 6, 14, the MS. has (u

§ 203. — 157 —

the emph. st. and the ahs. in the Substantive had disappeared, even
ancient pocta ventured to set the latter state alongside of £ "this",
which is formed like an abs. St.: pd- v «=> Ephr. II, 424 D (but Jsiaj v i
in, 2«3 I>); Sj vota "in this generation" Ephr. Ill, 8 0; ^a) ^op "dur-
ing this time" Isaac II, 80 v. 169. f) Tims even in prose and verse
^ o<S»= Bphr. Nis. p. 4 v. 7; 100 v. ISO; Eplff. (Lamy) I, 245, 18;
261, 21; II, 411, 11, 14 (^ oip> I, 391 nit); .Tnl. 119, (i; Plulox. 518,
18, 20 and frequently (MS), 12 var. |>^ ooo); like v fj. o& .Ink 80, 3
"in that time". Later poets, especially of the Nestorian order, go much
farther in the arbitrary employment of the ahs. st. for the emph.

1. (8) Many foreign words do not form any emph. st. at all; thus
the Greek il[ cajp, ^i-Sd^-ys wpcciT&piov, Jfuk;? OTO^/07; the Persian
V^i "jackal", ^an>; "weasel" Ac, as well as the Greek plurals § 81).
Some Greek words often lose even their final a, c. g. >i* )£#«. alongside
of I'Sojj (lioJ,) ; y^f fiyftz, alongside of lilp, i^-f (U?-=) &<=■

M. (9) Syriac Eeminines in ai (§ 83) stand always in the ahs. st.;
thus u..v qfl "error", "the error".

§"203. Several of the ahove examples already show that the at- »«
trilmtive Adjective to a noun in the ahs. st. stands also in the ahs. st.; ■ ■
cf. farther JJLS )1» ^ n&v mmftidv py/ia Matt. 5, 11; <*$4* ^'p-Ss^
"true men" Ex. 18, 21; -fpoi ja^S" "to a foreign people" Ex. 21, 8;

^i^y. V=-^, ^ m ¥ t^Sa, " rion man ' I 1001 ' m&U " Al ' 1U '' 302, 2 °' 21

(303*8, 9 in tho same connection (i.^ itP-^s,' ***=" Kp^)! ^r"-*^
,&S "wicked thoughts" Aphr. 296, 13; fx^I> ^^ "with wise re-
flection" Spic. 48, 20; )£(.£ !d~& y-J "like an evil beast" Ephr. (Lamy)
I, 369, 17 &a.

Yet there are also cases like !%.j£ <;?»«> I&J-1 t£-°£>- " to tllcse
three true witnesses" Aphr. 461, 3 (where variant is l}SH»), cf. Ens. Oh.
Hist. 146, 1 ; JjjijJ ^ja^Jl^J. (<$-«) <?JW "those (these) three righteous
men" Aphr. 16, 19; 454, 3 (in both passages a variant <j£i-|J); <^-ot
Lj^f -« T ) , t ~.^ "tlioso ton small books" Aphr. 200, 15, where the

Attributive
Adjective.

(') These are all tho undoubted examples which I have been able to collect.
In Ephr. also tho emph. st. with v.* is far more frequent.

— 158 — § 204.

signification is determined; JLJ-^^a *zh&*? > ^ L ^5 "and to all modes of
bodily death" Ano. Doc. 101, 3. Of. farther Philox. 367, 6; Jos. Styl.
70, 10; John v. Telia (Kloyn) 28, 5. Vice versa, with, a word standing
in the omph. si, but indefinite in meaning, and in form exchangeable
with the abs. St., the attributive adjective occasionally assumes the abs.
st., as in ^JU$*>t J-l*oV ^aj^jl Ultra Srspcc irvsv/xara Mutt. 12, 45 ((.!. ^oV;
S. without t *j-;- 1 -»(); ^»n\a,a ^fca&f- ItjoL \\a->, "seven kine fat in their
flesh" Gen. 41, 18 (otherwise in v. 2 and v. 19); and in very loose con-
nection ^io-^ Jj ^»^j "-yijUtyccg I/cavdg" Acts 9, 43 ; \j Ofou^ JLfJ *3fo
^j>'o,Sij "yvvaiK&v ts t&v 7rp6ra>v ovic okt'yai" Acts 17, 4; and oftener still
in the singular: idi*j JJ jarn^ "apyvpia heccud" Matt. 28, 1.2; id^j JJ J^otj
"not a little gold" Jos. St. 37, 5 ; io^f J] jS^ "not a short time" Aphr.
165, 13; Sim. 363 inf. Thus often ^ul when standing before the noun:
Jip^a ^yJl "another body" Ephr. Nis. p. 96 v. 54 &c. (§ 211 B); and
even when standing after it ^i-ijl (o£is "another god" Jac. Sar., Constantin
v. 28. 632.— The peculiar substantives ~qjL, ^.a^ (§§ 83 ; 202 M) always
indeed take their adjectives in the emph. st., e. g. \\'y*V*- "-^^ " on the
rigorous condition" Moes. II, 74, 3. An incongruity, no longer felt, exists
in rare cases like ^i-^-p (fcio U^x£» ^n> (^-^"a man that is a worker
of miracles, a solver of difficulties [knots]" Land III, 213, 14 (the 2" (l
epithet is from the passage in Dan. 5, 12, unskilfully translated); —
.**£ ^ <o^ u.iLjJ Jf-o't^ JLJhJ'I ^oo^-d "all discerning people who know
good from evil" Bedjan, Mart. II, 572, 10. In these cases the undeter-
mined genitives occasion the proper iiuleterminateness of the constr. st.
In the immensely preponderating mass of cases, a substantive, furnished
with an adjective, stands like the adjective itself in the emphatic state,
state or tha §204. A. The Abs. St. however, in the adjective is the proper

rCwvo" form of the Predicate. Thus e.g. ^ \±*%x> J b L&k "bread hidden
is pleasant" Prov. 9, 17; oioj.^-u w.^$ J] "his sin is not great" Aphr.
45, 8; (laj^J <& f>\ J^aJw "love is high above dissension" Aphr. 256, 15;
J^»o Ja^I^v J&o "stolon waters are sweet" Prov. 9, 1 7 ; JULa ui*&» 6
6(j)0-a\ju6; aou <irovr,pog ianu Matt, 20, 1,5 (a question); u.V f^*m-u l|»u
iv sot Xs/ttsi Luke 18, 22; JLLLd? Ijqj &[ o*a l%*%o "even the Jive of nature
in him. is cold" Pbilox. 355, 1 &c. A favourite proceeding is the alteration

— 159

of an attributive adjective, standing in the emph. St., into a predicative
one in the ate. st. and attached by the relative j: et. e. ,j. |J-S} VS*
(U^o, JiSoJuSo "by the strait gate and the way which is narrow" Ante.

447/2, where j-*,? J*%> or ! V-4? * iio ^ ,,ligllt stM " 1 ilS W ° U '

Very seldom indeed in good texts are there cases like W^ ^yj
JUi, |. JJ;Jo Ipki? 1^ "for the reward of deeds is one thing (adj.
in abTst.) 'and the reward of words is another thing (adj. in the emph.
st.)" in the Testament of Ephr., Ov. 141, 14. (*)

B. On the other hand the emph. st. sometimes stands along with
the Personal Pronoun, both when the latter is the direct subject, and
when it is merely the copula. This usage proceeds perhaps from a sub-
stantive conception of the adjectives, <>. ,,. $U\ J-3&S "&H who are
evil persons" Matt. 7, 11 ; 12, 34; ^ U^sf? »reXXe/ k)m Mark S, J;
iM JaJ-i rt "while you are guilty (guilty persons)" Aphr. 144, 7 ;
^> Jiju. "we" are honest men" Gen. 42, 11, 31; ,oMj Jsy^B v 6fc3j
"yon are wise persons" Aphr. 293, 16; J55 Jij "am I a great man?"
Joseph 26, 14 [Ov. 282, 1]; oo, ILo-i ooi *( "he also is a mortal" Ov.
67 9; .ojI M^Vtl* " the Egyptians are circumcised persons" Aphr.
210 10; Ji{ i^vt*? "tnat these things are true (or that this is the truth)"
Spic 18 7 ; ilo&kj ISlXd 05, )S^£kS> JJ "invisible is the nature of the
Godhead" Ov'. Si', 18 j i^^° ■•••«* <**** .••■¥** «J* " flv0Be
parts are dumb and silent" Ov. 68, 12, and many other like instances.
But the aba. st. would be permissible in all these cases, and it is the
more usual form in such cases, ,. g. IS! JfJPf, H *&<* " r <"" n f f •
thou art naked" Gen. 3, 10 and 11; fl ^^f '1 "> P<" rerftd ^
269 12- ,.1^ ^iamij ^ " w0 > wl, ° ilvc i""' 1 '" A I ,,ir - lli, ' 22; "^ ^
.ojj ^ jv "there, with him (Death) are they naked" Aj.hr. 426, 1 ;
-Jf ^.'ooT^a* ohJ "Ins weapons are weaker than ours" Aphr. 137,
21" &e. Of. cases like* !o£j.|J »-i f3 ^A)o '**(! 00, i^* -^ r* ^
oo, is, "the sinner, even while he is alive, is a dead man ( ! ) for God, but

~ffl The reading >. certain; even the Roman edition doe, not note any variant,
There ean hardly be any suggestion of metrical exigency in this ease, for the deficient
syllable might easily have been made up otherwise, e. g. by a ...

(') Thus pretty often Ittia and lU-il in the Predicate. Cf. 0.

— 160 — § 204.

the righteous man, even when he is dead, is a living man for God"
Aplir. 168, 17. For JL«is> ^.ijj (^o^jd svkoyvjiJ.ivyj ai hi yvmityv Imke
1, 42 P., 8. lias a W;^ = JfcJi JLa-ja.

In like manner pme Participles are always in the ahs. si; v.
§ 269 sqq.

0. "With foot the Adj. stands throughout in the Ahs. St. where
Persons are not concerned, e. g. otiS^A ^ Looi JLj5> "hut dreadful was
his word" Ov. 178, 25; JLtjtjio.^Jo i^. Loot ^ootto^t: "their intelligence
was alert and attentive" Ov. 100, 1; jJLa (o(k.^u?) oiL;-£ L2ook> mi
yivsrai to, 'iaxara avrov ysipwa Matt. 12, 45 &c. With persons some-
times the alls. st. is employed, and sometimes the emph. st. Thus
foot \> . 'Sn i ot^wj^ "in his course he was fleet" Sim. 269 mid.; fpotJ
°i W^Sffra/ yap fdyag Luke 1, 15; oooi ^~$£ fcfr-~! -^..O^ ""■ & T ' "'
TahXaioi oStoi iuapraXol .... sysvovro Luke 13, 2. But loot jUyim;
"who had been blind (a blind man)" John 9, 13; Jooi !t^.» "was dead"
Luke 15, 24 and 32; ,poop i>oi f»a Vsu lv°«9 "and now let them

through this be cautious" Ov. 85, 7 ; ^oVj^,^ jM.Nv wooif Liu

"women who had been ill-treated by their husbands" Isaac I, 244 v. 407.
So with animals (is* ooot JJ . . . . )-jSi> "the dogs were not greedy
(greedy ones)" Aphr. 383, 2; of. farther Matt. 5, 48; 6, 16. In the most
of these cases also a substantive conception attaches to the adjective.
Clearly thus in Loot |lkua.opo ,.5 a&\ "hut his mother was a believer" Ov.
160, 16; Loo) r> v> ,r>) vt would mean only "believed". How the two states
shift about here is shown by l^oAiL "^>i. 1ft. im fa. ijoiLo "and thou
be in need of conversion" Aphr. 144, 15, contrasted with JU jlqa !\ ^-i
. n . im loo^ ibid., lino 17. This is farther shown by the fact that for JSJLo
loot il/caio; w Matt. 1, 19 P., or Jijb loo) O, there stands in S. looi ^j>.
So for Matt. 10, 16 P. has the emph. st. and S. the abs. st.

D. On the other hand the Predicative Adjective with bJt stands
quite regularly in the emph. st. : U^JLij'Loop ^.oV.ls-1! t j^.! -6^4 "every-
thing which is useful" Ov. 84, 17; Jlo L£a Loot 6tA*! |L(_.J- "had tho
word been redundant" Ov. 75, 23 ; !f Q^;o -l^l J^§-A "I (m.) am despised
and insignificant" Ov. 281, 26; ot-lS-l ooL !LLd»i Do "and, bosidos, it

§ 206. — 161 —

(f.) is immortal" Aplir. 125, 10; JL&6ot'»! |i^=>f» ^oojJjS-| ik*x> "the
leaders of the Romans are gentle" Jos. St. 89, 13.

E. With verhs like "to show one's self as", "to he found", "to he
called" &c, the eniph. st. of the Adjective occurs perhaps rather more,
frequently than the ahs. : ij^-u —fall "showed himself brave" Ov. 159, 9 ;
JLLsJ obLofc^j "was found victorious" ibid, line 10; Jyi ■ n S ^yito&j "who
are called wise men" Aphr. 506, 17 &c, hut Jj-^a Kkj>i£jW Bvpsxhj sy
yaarpl 'ixouaa Matt. 1, 18; lk±*p «N*> ^> ^=>pj ^ '>*£*& "are found
devoid of all knowledge" Bpic. 2, 18 ; ,Jj^J> ^ "'"^ aval "your words
proved false" Joseph 38 ult. [Ov. 288, 7]. .For !■,;■ & j ^jbutvi "Aaimnw
upalol" Matt. 23, 27 P., Aphr. 307, 5 has ^.5;. '»; the reading is dif-
ferent in S.

]?. The Predicative Adjective, however, stands of necessity in the
emph. st. when it is quite definitely determined: amxo J^ji oc *^ •
|s6>j ".Tacoh is the persecuted, and Esau the persecutor" Aphr. 403, 14
(v. ibid. 403 sqq. for several other such sentences) ; JL.^,1 W fio JLii^o Ji! p(
"I am the first, and I am the last" Is. 48, 12 ; llaA^ao 6^i; !ooi ifrfl ■" lot)
"for he was certainly the most distinguished person in all the kingdom"
Aphr. 55, 3; Ifc-ijo u^ot; !ls-^>! J?^j! "the last testament, which is
the first" Aphr. 28, 9; UJ>1 oaJo )£_2i ojl.|; "who may he the guilty
one, and who the innocent" Ov. 191, 9.

C. GENITIVE AND CONSTRUCT STATE.

§ 205. A. The Genitive relation is still frequently expressed in <>• o»»ui»o
various forms of reference by the Construct State: "^A y.^° "king of •tmuswn

Gomiootion
le

tr. St.

as 2 Kings 20, 12, and frequently); |Lf. Ua^L "belua dattis" i. c. "rend- J» ""
ing animal" ["carnivorous animal", "wild beast" ] frequently ; ot^ ^jotai »»•! i>?
"remembrance of his master" Ov. 185, 12; Lao-L. fc^io >&3oj*a "in the
overflowing of the measure of debts" Aphr. 462, 3 ; oikoi ki j 1™f. j-
"by reason of the uiicleamiess of the lust after his sister" (j. e. "his un-
clean lust after &c") Aphr. 354, 6; I^joj "^uo "the sound of songs"
Aphr. 229, 18 ; &c. In all these cases the emph. st. with ; might hkowiso

- 162 — §205.

Ito used. But this is not permissible in specially close combinations, like
J A\Ns-» "enemy"; J*a^ ^Aa, "taking up the burden", i.e. "zeal"; >A^
jj-j "judgment"; ika-* k*a "rol'eetorium" (and in other combinations with
K*a) ; a^Xo i^ "son of liis nature" i. o. "of the same nature as he is" ; *a
I'jJL. "a freeman" ["son of the free"] (and others with vj, li=, >^i=>, fcS»)&c
The constr. st. also prevails in those combinations, in which the first half
is an adjective, whoso relation to the G enitive may be of various kinds :
(Joo, ~ ■■■£■ or JSoSt ^..n« "taken or bereft of understanding" i. e.
"without understanding" Aphr. 53, 13; Jul. 47, 10, and frequently;
JAn^ . k ..j=.« "whose heart has been torn out", i. e. "without under-
standing" Mart. I, 35 mid.; JflYN ji .a*^*. "clothed in splendour" .lose])h
196, 6 [Ov. 296, 10]; J£jl> ^-^ "whose life is accursed" Aphr. 110 nil;
!^i»f "-^» "°f miul y forms" Ov. 168, 23 ; J&o? l^a. "mhiriu-ov" Matt.
13, 46 [lit. "heavy or costly in price (pi.)] &c. "With affixed (reflexive)
Personal pronoun, ot£^o» ^o^a "he of murderous anger" Ephr. Nis.
1, 149 &c. ; ^ooivma ^-t-o ^^ <£> "from any that is close to them in
blood" Aphr. 232, 15 (cf. § 224*). And thus even oj^S Jba*. "the com-
pletely pure man" ('the man whose totality is pure') Bphr. Nis. 31, 122,
and -t^* ■ "*: ! "'he completely troubled one" ibid. 123. Cases like
} i.. ° ; 06, p^Si-kii "strong in body (pi.)" Spic. 5, 19 are rare; the emph.
st. in that instance was occasioned by ow coming between, — a particle
inserted here for the sake of emphasis (§ 221).

B. But otherwise the connection by J predominates throughout.
Particular examples are not required here. Both methods occur too in
those cases in which the Genitive of an abstract noun denotes a
quality or property, c. g. Uljoj "jo* and J^.jqjo( JLio* "the spirit of
holiness" i e. "the Holy Spirit" ; U-job lo-f» and '^s) lki*,» ; K.»tuo
Ja-jo-o and '.o; !Vr° " tne ll0 ^ cit y"; it 00 * y v >>"> "in the deceitful
world" Aphr, 462, 6; \\$o -jjla "hitter fruits" Aphr. 473, 11; LoSJu,
i-v-[ "everlasting liberty" Ephr. Ill, 250 B; jlSjiSaa} {kuJ^o^ "the
blessed vine" Aphr. 446, 3; pfi) «ajs and J»!j! J amp "counterfeit
money" Aphr. 301 ult., 285 nit; lf^»f \kp**>\ "true love" Spic. 7, 1;
(U-wj fy ** k-^ "considerable store-chambers" Land III, 215, 13;
and many like oases. So too in cases like i., juit> ia^ "Mt. Sinai" Ephr,

§ 205. — 163 —

II, 488 B, and elsewhere, alongside of ojubj; ija^ Ephr. II, 433 F;
^■v$*> ^JLj "in the land of Egypt" Aphr. 313, 5, together with the more
usual t;!^* JL^'J^ ibid- line 4, <&o. (where even the relation of Ap-
position would he allowable). But the Construct State can never
stand before the j of the Genitive. (').

G. When the two parts are determined in pure Genitive relation,
then the reference to the genitive is very commonly indicated by the
appropriate possessive suffix, e. g. i&fcsj ot$£> "the Son of God" fre-
quently, as well as IA^; !^s; J^.5!) oU^oio rd akag r-qg y9j; Matt.
5, 13 P.O. Aphr.457, 7 (S. JLuS*»); JBLi^m-ja! .ooioC^ "the God of the
Christians" Ov. 161, 13; 1^^-? <at*j-S "the children (adherents) of the
Church" Ov, 221, 2 — J^v. i»iii id. 216, 16 and often; as well as in-
numerable other instances. But the following would hardly be admis-
sible — rA^t ot^'! "tbe land of Egypt" (Genitive of identity) ; o*jio>
lA;o-o} "the Holy Spirit" (Genitive of quality), ^jji? °*\&=l coulcl
only mean "the fathers of Egypt" (the latter being thought of as
their child) ; "the Egyptian fathers" is ^.Sjso? fLcwal Jul. 56, 23. It is
true there is no sharp line of demarcation here. Thus we have even
IKi*^Mj 6) V «. ^ i> "the prisoners from the city" Jul. 58, 18.

D. Examples, in which several forms of Genitive connection are
associated, are !<5|3S ^; o^ojfcil} l^of^ "the birth of the human nature
of the Son of God" Jul. 155, 15 ; </l*m. ^S) ^cxlaJ^pf* )=V>^ <£/
"the time of the end of the administration of the sons of Sheni" Aphr.
88, 13 ; If-o-Mj ■ ■*i t£" tv^aj J;*"" "the Kenites of the house of Moses'
father-in-law" Aphr. 254, 15; !^j (Jn-oi! JJ^a^ !W ta^»
oiJ^i.J»f "the northern half of the wall of the sanctuary in the Church
of his town" Ov. 190, 13 ; U^f? -=t°>'*? Ul>*49° ! V-V'i? !j«<"? J^r=>o
(ifot-iap "and through the rising of the light of understanding, and through
the fruit-bearing of the olive tree, the enlightener" Aphr. 449, 11 &c.

( l ) Any such instanoes in our editions rest on textual errors. K*^, r* "fc^-
adj^, Aphr. 838, 4 is only an apparent exception ; it means "by the name— 'those
of the house of Jacob' " (§ 209 A) I So eeli*^^ l^ji u-Sja "in the days of those
of the house of Diocletian" Jul. 24, 9.

— 164 — § 206.

E. Two nouns may thus stand in different Genitive relationship to
the same noun, cf. ik^JiJbio **^o^? "■^jflx.?? oijo^aa*. "Israel's boasting
about the distinction of meats" Aphr. 313, 12; pjif Jifoos ;Ai. "the
transgression of the ordinance hy Adam" Aphr. 419, 13; !ooi i_*^oiJIa.
»d^ ^ij «£i^j "for it was Abraham's daily custom" Aphr. 391, 8;
.ojqAIj JLjl;q_o» JLooi "the Holy Spirit of your Father" Aphr. 415, 8;
Jl&£o? oti-i "his hand of the left" i. e. "his left hand", and thus frequently
with ))u&*? and J|&£p; "right" and "left"; j£-£>? w ^nrt "thy hook of life"
Ps. 69, 28 ; !i^*s <aLo "our nature which is of dust" Aphr. 41, 17 &c.
A different construction, and one of a Hebrew type, is found in 1%^?
^ocxIJLdj "their risible body" Aphr. 179, 1.

§ 206. Adjectives often stand in the Oonstr. St. before pre-
positions, especially when that which is governed by the prepositions is
closely connected in thought with the adjectives. Thus (ojlu^ 1 ) l ^ * ^ *-
"beautiful in appearance" Gen. 12, 11; ^Aa ^u-JJ JL=»* JUfloj "the great
physician, excelling in everything" Ov. 193, 21 ; JsJLa ..-jrifii "acnpicntes
vultum", i. e. "hypocrites", frequently; o» ,■< *!-» *£**» "master of him-
self, "free" Spic. 19, 8 ; ^ ^> Uui^ ,6oiLoo£j.|J "their divine nature
concealed from all" Jul. 41, 10 ; yCo r . 'N ov i« ^8> ^ m-» pyj yl "like
others, despised by their hearers" Ov. 179, 11; fi* > fs ji^^u (iaf "the
time determined by the prophets" Mart. I, 11, 2; u^. o<5f^ ^-'tr^ "who
look keenly to 'give me'" Aphr. 286, 8; ) A . jinN <«. ■¥»> "who has put
on Christ" Ov. 397, 12; e>4&». ^u.S i.; ^i-)j *o?^J° Ktxl h&ofio-
XoDaa rods aTtsaraX/xhov^ <7rp6g avrvpt Matt. 23, 37; Luke 13, 34, and a
great many other instances. A very large number, e. (j. occur in Pliilox.
366. Notice farther oi^&jji t^N»Yi |lJSk& "a word of potency like it"
Ov. 21, 18; and so even JL^A<v Jj? lf^-| "horn without connection" Ov.
91, 21. This construction in the case of the substantive is limited to one
or two constant combinations like JL»JLa *-»rny "accoptatio vultus" i. a.
"hypocrisy"; Jjio£» Aflu (or JuioS *oaao) "going forth into tlie wmd(?)"
"defence, excuse"; cf. [k,ia juitiyi "the laying upon the head" (Inf.)
j. e."punishment"; |U»>$p ?"?» "thought".

(!) Var. *4lAa.

S§ 207. 208. — 165 —

§ 207. In rare oases Ajljoctivos stand thus in the Constr. St. be- ccn.str.st.

. „ . . before

fore advoidin also, which in fact resemble a cotiihmation of preposition Adverts.
anil substantive: M!"^? -^^ "who die quickly" Mart. I, 79, 10 ; -VaA
. .^'A-^ ,,. ^^ )k.ljL|; "that leap nimbly over its valleys" Mart. I, 47, 1 ;
fc^KjLs li^ji ."leading a iniserahle life" (Kaic6@ioi) Jul. 112, 13; ouna»
^iiij ^*~> >^a«. "persons woll-exporionocd in all things" Jul. 162, 10 ;
K ft ,', r.t pJCijx, .... K T't-ia.? ^"iS- "slain in the body .... risen in
the spirit" Sim. SOB, 24. Such combinations arc specially made use of
to translate (ircek words compounded with adverbs, e.g. v*a«- **ii&
swradoOvTsg 1'k. ill, IB Hex.; and indeed the whole of this construction is
modelled upon the (iveek. Similarly occur the circumlocutions for "self",
like .6o£v. vOJ* o.5fx>» <j>i\avroi 2 Tim. 3, 2, Hark. Even Cyrillona
ZDMG XXVII, 573 v. 267 lias thus trfi. ow nay^o I*ii-^"the serpent
that has crushed himself".

§ 208. A. The Construct State must stand immediately before the JW£|j£
{lenitive. Only short words like the postpositive particles ,4, ,.?, W^&c, '""^.^
as well as lhat and such like, may sometimes interrupt the succession: .ord.
j .yv~ K !j ouLi "fUU vera Balae" Land HI, 39, 16; U>**- t-^w^ " deus
enm coeli" Jul. 54, 28; JWait^ ^ fc^. "now the cause of the abol-
ishing" Kphr. II, 124 B; J&JU &-f *^- "&e cause, to wit, of the pain"
r3phr. II, 108 A; ^taifpia ooL -V&-"? "™< l farther tllose wll ° are
vain of thoir Utigiousness" Ktatuti dolla Scuola di Nisibi (Guidi) IB, 10;
J^jJ ^JuJ oit=? "that thoy are the sous of the righteous" Ephr. II, 384 D ;
oC^ut. |oS) jki^'Mie was a mighty man of strength" Judges 11, 1 &c.
More remarkable is ^l l^f^i *** !?*? W*» a di8tance of tW °
stadia from it" Jul. 229, 4.
Of. farther § 327.

As a somewhat isolated instance stands (Oo^opii*. ^ -a^ 4
"writers and readers of thoir names" Land HI, 136, 14, where two words
in the Constr. St. rotor to one Genitive.

B. The separation of tho Genitive from tbo governing wo:
no difficulty, however, when t is employed. Not only may the latter
have an attributive word with it, as in I^M >^ *-V i l«"> / " the
sweet allurements of sin" Ov. 1B9, IB (which might also stand thus: U~

— 166 — § 209.

\ ' "S . " . '^o>j), but additional words are also allowed to intervene. Of.
Jt=!f ool l&at l^Lo "and he was, again, a companion of the mourning"
Ov. 2(17, SI; jiS Jiooi li^>? t ■■*»•»■ JaaXjsj ^i. "hecauso after the image
of God the lordly reason has been made" Moes. IX, 94 v. 296 ; "Njilj
«-" !)r»-5s=.? > o-» 4 yi % uifi joJjj !]vb "accusations were brought against
. a man before Narsi TamsabDr" Mart. I, 123; i^i* ^\ ^oo^o^i*.
! ,^-1 ^oj l&ot jfeasp 6<xi "he proclaimed before the whole Church
the names of all those who ..." Ov. 176,2. — In stray cases the Genitive
stands even before the governing-word; otHs^oIK^. v lol&..cSi otN^; isl (jjjot
{^t~tf w5 * J^J^f 1 "thus also of all our faith the foundation is that firm
stone" Apbr. 6,16; (ijjoi Jl^I*. J^dj ^»j "supplies even for only one
year" Sim. 346 mid.
Houn witn § 209. A. In these cases already the superior independence of},

GoTor'nins- properly a Demonstrative-(Relative-)Pronoun ("that of"), is shown. This
expressed* Decoines s ^ more conspicuous when no governing word is expressed ;
iedj6»oi k^j jaij. fierd tw ' Hpuiiavfia/ Matt. 22, 16 P. ('exj l^>. jai.
C. S.); a iin\i k*^? "those of the house of Jacob" frequently; k*^j ^**
^i . n ; vi "on the adherents of Marcion" Ov. 193, 17; »*A^ifj> "the season
of the forty-days' fast" Sim. 376, sq. ; jj«:>.'pp; «^> "from the district of the
Mar'ashenes" Sim. 356, 1 ; JLuoijo Ijoj; ^^j!* "those rejoice who are of the
fire and the spirit" Ephr. (Lamy) 1, 57 Str. 7 ; JUoao^ig ^^ Utx !^of}
"for it was a matter of terror and amazement" Sim. 355, 3 ; ooj Utj. .v;
"is worthy of blame" Philox. 544, 9 ; ^jji} woio^-!f "^i "every one who is
the Lord's" Ov. 168, 19; ,;y>to& f'.vij; "are called those of the right hand
(•= 'the just 1 )" Spic. 12, 4; (JAas> (OJoi "those on the left" ibid. 12, 6;
(ooi W-!^} "was common" Ov. 167, 24; jiypN 'iSaot ^^pot a=»<5) airo-
lors oSv rd Ka/aapog Kalaapi Matt. 22, 21 ; lumip; £ "from that which
belongs to the poor" Ov. 190, 16 ; Mfcaij &&A "who has robbed the
property of his companion" Aphr. 423, 19; )m.n; "made of wood" Jae.
Sar. in ZDMG- XXIX, 109 v. 30; ,ojf ISaf; KpoaKoupol skiv Marie 4, 17 ;
Ji'yufji o(^. iowf ^601 \ vi s . "their toil, which had become (the property)
of others" Aphr. 506, S, and frequently ) low, and many like in-
stances. To this place belongs also oi^LJI ^'jJLf 6|A-aijo kou SXa/3sv
tsvrepo; Trpi ywalKa Luke 20, 30 P. S. (where C. reads differently,

§ 210. — 167 —

-ex !UD); cf. v. 31, and 19, 18 (§ 239). Somewhat different are oases
like ^jJjl.! uaft (Oooooj ±x»l{ J^o "and their fast did not resemble
that of the inhabitants of Jezreel" Aphr. 50, 11; oijA*<xo ^olj
^Jljd, o^Kmlo ^.*=oi? "Abel's offering was accepted and Cain's re-
jected" Aphr. SO, uU.; v o,vm«.;o ,-jtj oooi ^j>( "they raised accusations
against us and Simeon" Mart. I, 19 inf.

B. To this section may be joined certain adverbial applications of
;, such as the following: JulAj "for the moment", "for the nonce", "now";
|Ka£} "immediately" (both occurring frequently); J.*>aj} eyfiepov Matt.
6, 11 C. ; ffSal ^-LVtj "twice", or "a second time" Gen. 43, 10; Eccl.
6,6; Matt. 26, 42; John 3, 4; Sim. 300, 2; 317 mid.; JLJU^j "for the second
time" Bedjan, Mart. II, 562, 6; 605, 17. Farther wo have the favourite
construction of ajl with J "to be concerned for that which is of . . " i. e.
"to be concerned about": yoifii; ,ei>j!i. JJ M /mpi/ware rfj ifnixs ifmv
Luke 12, 22 O. (U*j; S.) ; (AoStot? &p "oared for the combat" Ephr.
in Wright's Cat. 689 a, 3 ; ^po^lotj y! ,ooti-? ,»%- oooto "and they
must care for thein as for their own members" Ov. 216, ult; ^a^
,.0^5 "care for everytliing" Jos. St. 3, 11, and frequently thus, with ?
(andV.) § 225). Thus too JS> is used sometimes: *lii fef oS «V?!
,sL. U ot^i-^jo "every man is concerned for his house, but for his
flock he cares nothing" iBaac I, 288 v. 267; cf. Ephr. in Zingerle's
direst. 278, 6sg.; Philox. 361, 18; Bedjan, Mart. II, 428, 7. Thus also
t&o-j JxSk» (j>pomv iiftipoai Rom. 14, 6; i^ij kii fe-j^ h *" ""
fame!; t& TOO frsov Matt. 16, 23. All these combinations with j may,
for the rest, have been suggested by Greek Genitive constructions.

§ 21 0. The substantive which stands before the genitive is generally d**^ ^
determined; yet among the foregoing examples some of those substantives oov.„,i„ e
occur without any determination; thus particularly with the Abs. St.,
like iLoli? M» ^&»- "any flesh of beast" [i e. the flesh of any animal]
Spic. 7, 26.

Even the Constr. St. before the Enroll. St. is not necessarily deter-
mined: Ikif. v» "films wni" "a (person, animal or thing, wliich is) one-
year old'' (often); fJt**? M* ^ "two king's-daughters" Aphr. 408,
3, 4; tM&jj ija "a son of the world" i. e. "a layman" Sim. 286, 6;

— 168 — § 211.

t-k ■ L ^? t**" r % P°«ii\iK6g John 4, 46 (v. 49 JUSy j^a. o& 6 paaiXitaS;;
C. merely Jjsiso ja**); yi JU! ^ "a brother's son" Mart. 1, 14!) mid.,
and of course quite properly ill words like J-^Nsn "the enemy" or "an
enemy".

1). CO-ORDINATION.

■o § 811. A. The Attribute as an Adjective stands in the same Gender

and Number as the Substantive, and throughout in the corresponding

State ; for a few exceptions v. § 203. It conies after the substantive :

&-'l J^f. <W !1 K^?. >f% JLp*?- t>&% IVf ^ &>■

B. ^yj and u^ss, however, often come in before the substantive,
e - 3- J/k*? %-"f "aWrp napapoXfy" Matt. 13, 24 P. or )lkso ,.; )i\jj C.
(S. 'a.! 'so) ; 13, 31 and 33 P. (in both passages in C. and S. 'J 'so) ;
M 15 ?"? PvJ <®&°IS ywpyoTi Matt. 21, 41 P. (0. and S. '*»! 'a\); (If-oi
) V» ; »'S> "Irepov Xuyia/i6v" Sap. 19, 3 ; iAyfcv. !6-SJ-^ "other reasons"
John Bpb. 395, 12 ; and in the Abs. St. (§ 203) l^> ^u? "another master"
Mart. I, 235 inf. ; Jsk* ^Ja "in another name" Eplrr. II, 555 A ;
IJij ^.pl "another secret" Ephr. (Lamy) 11,739,14; cf. line 20, and 741 , 7 ;
w^-^^^t? "at his other side" ibid. 765, 2 and many others.— IJL^ss
1&$J° tyr-^> ffoXXo; wpcxjtTjrat Kai Hkcuoi Matt. 13, 7 ; JU3? ^ !jb^_ns
"many men" Aphr. 505, 7; ^JS? (A^ssSP "many times" Eplrr. I, 398 P;
tkAaj ool ll^4^=p "many souls, farther" Land II, 326, 2 &c. But
both these words are far oftener placed after the substantive, ^a too
is often put first: Jsiv^ka ^a "sucb and such a tiling" John Eph.
192, 21; llS-jJJ ^i^aa "in a certain town" ibid. 1, 20; ^a JBiv=>
JS^o^, "on this appointed business" Ephr. II, 179 A ; but ibid, also the
usual order: ^a JL&afa "on such and such a sacrifice".

In rare instances the adjeotivewhen emphatic also precedes, especially
with the poets, e. g. !W^». ifc-ooyo "the first foundation" Spio. 49, 20;
JA»4 iKo-j^) "of the cleansed soul" Ov. 261, 14; jto^oSta {J oAftj "thy
chaste virginity" j&iij.line 1 6 ; itasp (K* "greedy death" Ephr. Nis. p. 57 v. 67.
Certain adjectives of praise or dispraise are frequently placed first, like
U-rf> "the holy (sg.)"; (SAo^, f. ik-I&o^ "the (m. or f. sg.) happy (or
blessed)"; AdIjjjo "the blessed (sg.)"; i\Ks> "the excellent (sg.)"; Js^JU

§§ 212. 213. — 169 —

"the wicked (sg.)" ; 1$.»V "tlie accursed (Kg.)" &c, e. g. "Ti - " oj XtoiJ
"the splendid Akaldon" Ov. 162, 21; uoo^jflo ^» i;Kj» "Imt the ex-
cellent Sergius" Jos. Styl. 84, 6; ptfig HS-oao^ "the Blessed Mary"
Aphr. 180, 2; t~~l~% JL^-V JS°> " tllis accursed Tam&bor" Mart. 1,
124, 2; aaojj.Vo^ JLj-i.it "the godless Julian" Ov. 160, 14 &(•■■; also in
accumulations of adjectives like im n . N i rn-j )=>io JLi^»4^[^.]o li.jjiv
"the holy, elect, and groat Basil" Ephr. HI, XLIII ad inf., and many
like instances. But here too it is always allowable to put the adjective
after the substantive; and witli some it is oftoner done. The two positions
appear oven in the same phrase: JA-Ja , nsin « -.;jo )*=><iij "the blessed
Mar Simeon, the holy" Sim. 269 supr.

The attributive Adjective may be separated from its substantive:
jjot ?r-»- t-^. o5 t lr~ v "opus est enim pulchrum hoc" Spic. 1 , 20 ;
ISv.o,-o;o lki>>o$ ^vr.rri JUiiija} ooi woiofilS l^oiij ^ iftN^ o "for all tilings,
great and small, lie in the hands of men" Spic. 9, 9 &c.

§ 212. The Apposition may be either before or after the principal AotmMmi.
word: *£od^£oj{ J ANv> "the emperor Anastasius" Jos. Styl. 28, 2; 42, 3;
90, 10; JLa^io iffid^oi! "Anastasius tlie emperor" ibid. 26, 7; l^ Ny
■ fpA A^'l )U^ "the believing emperor Anastasius" ibid. 8, 8; 16, 18.
Upon the whole, additional forms indicating respect incline to precede
tlie leading word (thus always -•*» "my Lord, Master") ; explanatory or
descriptive forms come after it: yet this is not to be regarded as a fast
ride. As one example of the prior and posterior order in one and the
same phrase, take |a nnm , 5 i il^^ -V" >■ ' »■» •"'> P~&\ a tyiW " tllu
excellent, (Jurist-loving, Mar Tiniotlious the Bishop" Aphr. Prof. 18, ami
many such.

§ 213. The Apposition may be loose, and may become a mere sub- loobo
stitution or parallelism. Examples like fJaaZ $ ^v^sof liaa ^toJpo
1y~* i / 6 ^ )AaajL> ^J&j ^'jlo i^T lf i """' 1 ' l0 Sllt ' sne( l distressed, hunger-
ing people with five loaves and two fishos— fivo thousand men" Aphr.
42, 17; i=!d*>; Jb^iJLzk wotojjA^^a) J^>1=> "in the land of his onemies,
in the land of Moab" (notico the repetition of the prep.) Aplir. 161, 12;
oupUo Wt SN ItjmyS.)!) ooi J^>o-. J^sA-i t_^JLij» "for the Passover
of the Jews is the fourteenth day of the month,— in fact its night and

— 170 — §§ 214. 215.

day" Aplir. 223, 11; f^L^a ^.*$ ?Kjl l^aoJ/ loot <—»»*& "tlie wine was
sold at a denarius for six measures" Jos. St. 36, 13— may suffice to
illustrate several of tlic most important cases.

Hem, On the Person (grammatical) in apposition v. § 350 0.

§ 214. Apposition is generally made use of in the case of words
denoting measure, like JUl«.v> «*&» {Jh© g/carov ft&rovg ekaiou Luke 1 (>, 6,
of. v. 7 ; jbax&h, trnv.b,joj t-<^ ^-^? "f 01 ' w ^ 1 three ounces of bread"
()v. 182, 10; JLg-ii ^.^ab t;A^X thirty measures of wheat" Jos. St.21,2();
ijalf x^% ^k ca ^" "* ei1 l° at ^ s of silver-pieces" Jos. St. 10, 21 ; JLijo-so
JL&f oi^i^o "a measure and a-half of pulse" Sim. 360 inf.; l\&) (1»
lijSX "a handful of dust" Aplir. 154, 5, and many similar cases. The
genitive connection with ? would also he allowable here.

§ 215. " l«vt and *^u£xo often remain, unaltered in form, like ad-
' verbs, and standing either before or after the qualified word : ^*^» P«*J
"many fishes" Sim. 273, 14; u^aa t'^&j "many leopards" Land III,
335, 17; <^^d iiS-ii-^vip "many pearls" ibid, line 21 ; J^oiij **^|? "many
things" Spic. 6, 6; Ja<jfl **^^» "many wars" Sim. 282 mid.; JA ^ o N .
"^-^ja "a little consolation" Jos. St. 32, 10; "^-^J? JSjota^, JSot "this
biief exhortation" Aplir. 331, 2; JLo^jp; Jjqj ^-^-o oklya tyftfJbta Matt.
15, 34 P. (S. merely ^An Jj&j) ; (ftoo<L» ^-^J? ov TtoXkdg yjju.&pag John
2, 12 (for the same in Luke 15, 18, S ^^J3 !K»o.); JmJ to "^"^-a %&> "this
short demonstration" Aplir. 244, 7 ; JJujl <-£**>* ^-^-o ^-^i "these few
words of peace" Aplir. 298, 19; JUuaf.^^o "a little sun" Aphr. 130, 18;
cf. ji^s ^» ^-^ "a little of Satan" Aphr. 130, 19; and ^i*x> ^d,
um^jp ^» "these few things out of many" Jos. St. 91, 15; Jul. 98, 13; and
similar instances. The abstract word IJL^oja is also employed in this way :
IJL^^m |ii? "many men" Ephr. I, 520 vM. — 521, 1 ; IjL^o-m J^o^. "many
Levites" ibid. 544 F.; <*$ iJL^cLfl* {^Aa — 1«d flSW mi» Job 1, 3;
o^j |JL^^> JbSfr Xaa|o (JLaj^XoAopo pj^lJ^^infi "for, wisdom and
understanding and insight in much abundance" Ov. 191, 13; — JUloV
*a-^l UjJftJa th^La m ^o "horses and chariots in very great nuinbor" Land
HI, 331, 8.C 1 ) '

O On IJ-^„»A "very", "muoh" v, § S

§§216—218. — 171 —

§ 216. A mode of Apposition is formed also l>y cases like ooi "^.o e*p™b-
^»^o oio.;^. "and lie first (as the first) entered" Ephr. (Lamy) I, 535, 15 ; 00n(!ition
llfJi*. (uLtaJ Uaofa —ai ooj "ho was the first to show good will" Jos. St. Z'^°
23, 1 7 ; ^Lui. ^.ty* i^ .~a«s.n. ^.oi .ni'irriii "Isaac, when sixty years of
age, begat Jacob" Aphr. 464, 10; ij-too ^>oi loot $K.| "Hainan had been
left remaining as one who had escaped" Aphr. 52,15; Ik^o-ojsp t&-6Vo
Jf^...-^s« , v "and has boon given as nutriment to believers" Aphr. 114, 2;
n) ^vv Jjtj ».d la-ti o^IS^j "Jephthah, the persecuted, came forward
as the head of his people" Aphr. 407, 14, and many others.

E. %a. - E - ^>-

8 217. ^M (\aa) may he used in the Abs. St. as a substantive a ai».

vi and

for "everything", "everybody". Thus, in particular, expressions like E „^. Sl .
N^, jjys "the Redeemer of all" Ov. 208, 24; ^o puij "xamKpdrap"
frequently; ^o Ifei "the Lord of all" Aphr. 22, 12 ; for the same we have
^oj JL!(.i Spic.27, 24 ;^j>? ooi JLpo Aphr.63,10 ; farther -wof-La^ <fc*{
"put all things into his hands" Aphr. 123, 2 (from John 3, 35, where P.
and G. have the more usual pf& "W) ; lootL ^o ^o jai.) "that thou
mayost bo all things to all men" Ov. 266, 15; ^o <.oot "we would he
everything" Spic. 20, 22; pa*?kS> o ) ^=> ^ r? " wMe eve1 ^ onD
rejoices in his own house" Ephr. Ill, 651 A; ) ^o £ ,ju*4 "we de-
mand of ovory man, that ..." Jul. IB, 5 &c. On rare occasions it appears
as an adverb "quite", "thoroughly": (ooi joo*5 poM* Vo "and roared
on continually" Sim. 393, 12; o^ MM %^ ^=>! ""hose eye was
wholly liftod up to heaven" Ephr. II, 415 F.

In tliis way the Empb. St. JJi ((joj) is used for "the whole", "the
universe": (|iu> Mi f|M f^ !o01 W ***** " does " ot evel '3 rthin g &*$
go to one place?" Bocl. 6, 6 Oeriani; (Jbj. £ f-^f" "worshipped by all"
f3phr..lll,532 0; f. (/=.* £ l-Hs- «• 53 ° ¥ ' ¥' W>J " the Architect
of the universe" Epbr. Nis. p. 97 v. 110; flao %l ILiP "everything de-
pends on peace" Ephr. Nis. p. 4 v. 46 Sea.

■ §218. Much oftenor ^ stands in the Constr. St. We saw it be- £ °»-
fore substantives both sg. and pi., § 202 D; cf. ^feft !-^~> "for -' **

— 172 — § 218.

in every way" Jul. 69, 12 (§ 208 A). With undetermined, words ^o
means "every", "all" ("all" pi.). It may even stand, before determined
substantives: (s-ot<LJ>) y'<'y> ^&^ ^=> "all the days of thy (his) life"
did. 14, 14, (Eccl. 8, 35).

In its favourite connection with the relative pronoun ; it means
"every one, who", "all who", "all which": va*! ^s "every one, who
pleased ..." Aphr. 328, 14; oi^. ^^i} ^o "all, who seek him" Aphr.
198, 10; ioSi lioj^s "all that he had acquired" Ov. 165, 25 &c.

So also j JLi-l ^o, j ^ ^a "every one who" [whoever], and similar
combinations (§ 236 D). Farther, as adverbially used: ^*] ^d "quite
near to" Cyrillona ZDMG XXVII, 578 v. 81 sq.; j y-j "^a "precisely
as" Jul. 92,7; j Jbbus ^d "just as much as" ; J **ks?£ ^° "as often as",
and the like.

Very often a substantive has ^%j> in apposition with it, and placed
either before or after it, and furnished with a pronominal suffix of its
own, referring to the substantive. Sing.: 1^,-jja oiXi "the whole town"
Jer. 4, 29; JLiio ©£*i <irixs b fy\os Mark 2, 13; {6a*^ao oi Nn^ "the whole
town" Ov. 207, 3, for which lin. 6 gives oVSo Jfcsl-^o ; 6*Xa o.*ai "my
whole soul" Ov. 164, 21; JLuJol 6js *> "the whole way" Joseph 192, 12;
214, 5 (in both passages Var. 'a '!) ; JrnhinS ^j\ o£*.<ld $ ^^- "thoy
are above the whole law" Aphr. 30, 12. — Mur. : io\$u ^oo^A Ttdvrcc . . .
rd d/Mzpryj/Mira Mark 2, 28 ; JLuj ^oot^i "every valley" Is. 40, 3 ; Luke
3, 5 (Eccl. 1, 3 )Luj V) ; ILojiJ ,.3|i>wOJ> ^.ci "all these things" Aphr.
9, 10; v oo(\aa nn,;AnS "to all Clerics" Ov. 206, 11 4c. In other
uses also the word has the pronominal suffixes attached: ^£, > a\&,
"we all", "you all"; o t Sft- i "in him wholly, in liim everywhere" Ov. 165, 9;
oCvl ^otolj-l — loA. "it remains entire with me" Aphr. 200, 1; t-"
oS J££ otXn; JLI^-1 "a tree, which is all life" Ov. 399, 22; ,.? ,ojSi
^6 o t S , n oxiv .... "hut they all answered" Sim. 321 mid., and many
such. Also before relative-clauses (Jpl? *>$^£ "omnia, quae durit"
Joseph 256 paen. [Ov. 328, 7] ; iixjl ^ioij ^.i frX*-. "in all tilings which
are worthy of God" Ov. 173, 18 &o.

Notice, besides, the adverbial phrases: <rfvi ^i "entirely", which
appears often; wXb jjot ("completely so") "very much so", "to that

§ 219. _ 173 -

extent , for "which oil stray occasions appear also )Sot ot-^-D, 6*Xd (fot,
of^a oot. So also ^o with relative-clause following : o t ^^ ; jof» ^qj>
QA <H^? ^o-^a-ot^ "in all that thoy did, they distinguished themselves
liy faith" Aphr. 20, 8; ooot ^i'-»-v <*XJj j»j ^o ^.^^o "ami
spoodily thoy carried out his wish in all that he commanded" Sim. 344, 22.
Of. farther §§ 205 A; 347; 34'J; 358 B; 300 H.

if. ptM. »

§ 219. jo^ "something" is very often employed as a substantive;
also in distributive repetition jojib jop& "all sorts of things". Thus it
may even stand in the Genitive: ^f» ^o "everything" — frequently,
)oy»J l$u? "fear of any thing" Jul. 3!), 9; jajsb p(& !^Jf "in greed
for all manner of things" Aphr. 289, 17; pfio ppa frv v "* "on any pre-
text whatever" Aphr. 292, 2; or it may he followed by a genitive with ?:
{kS».a_r>Jbo; ppk "something eatable" Ov. 221, 9. It has often an attri-
butive adjective along with it: jua ppio "something evil"; **k- jojib
"something more" Spic. 2, 20. Sometimes the adjective has the ending
a, and it is a matter of uncertainty whether it is then the Ahs. St. f.
(according to § 201) or the Kmpll. St. in.: !),-&- ]*$& Ov. 210 Hit. -=-.
214, 21; J£j y>;» "soiuetliing great" Mocs. II, 104, v, 428; 150 v. 1241.
But the relative construction is more usual in that case *JLda? ys^a &o.

Not seldom jOfio stands in apposition to a substantive, and with the
moaning "any one or thing whatever", or qualified by the negation "no,
none" : <»ova tv^Sj. \$-<** 7 5 t io ? " m w ' n oh lies.no advantage" Aphr. 230, (i ;
JLob»oi2 tt»io ^po^v ^v }^*T )] "no pollution whatever approaches
their mind" Aphr. 428, 4; ppo ^.^p "a little" often; pjjo ll n^-^-vv-t
"a certain enmity" Jos. St. 45, 5;- ysf* iK=.&oip 'MfJ; "that he de-
mand a gift" Jos. St. 7H, 10; ^ijot ^^j> y? pojio JlLi^m "many a
thing that was not written" Aphr. 343, 17; tjLuj ill jojMJ ri arjixsim /to
Luke 23, 8; Jsk^Ka •pfo "a word" Matt. 27, 12 (there S. p^ka '»);
Luke 28, 9; v?°t^ K.{ yi^o lojUif "that they had a vision of some sort"
Isaac II, 218 v. 318; pjio JlUI "soveral men" Kphr. I, 549 F; K*a
J »*io hpfc* "among some dead hodies which ..." Kphr. 1, 101 B &c.

— 174 — § 220.

; «j», moaning "something which", and then directly "that which" —
is -very common in an attributive relative-clause (§ 236 0).

pjso also stands in negative sentences adverbially: ^ju! a^il | ppo
"did not injure them at all" Jos. St. 89, 13 ; p,ao otfotj jui (j "no man
hurt him at all" Sim. 357 mid.; ofo. )J pjM *& "no man whatever
helped Mm" Sim. 312 ad inf.; Juki? ^Jv. io« >n-io> pf» low |J "he was
not in the least in need of sacrifices" Aphr. 315, 9 and the like. So in
the interrogative sentence jJ^AAoA ^> )»j» Iojj >s^ol^| JaoX "were
the windows altered at all from thy measurements?" ZDMG XXV,
339 v. 361.

Of. farther §§ 169, 236.

G. PRONOUNS.
PERSONAL PRONOUNS.

§ 220. A. The separate Personal Pronouns are often still con-
joined with the finite verb: (Svit. ^iu> "we (with no special emphasis)
have heard" Aphr. 354, 8; jnoi ki| yS^pjjpo <j^i.J ^ ^ "if we
have done wickedly and have provoked thee, he thou merciful" Aphr.
491, 5 ; »oajt v?^ 3 i <i " if onl y y° w iu ' e willnl S" Ov. 117, 15; y-o-i! )5jo
"and I am to show it to thee" Aphr. 7, 9 ; oi+Lu^. ^ JooX&j JJ "let
ua not he unthankful towards [do wrong to] his mercy" Isaac I, 22 v. 462;
looi jrtjjs ^ ooij y.{ "as he used to tell us" Ov. 162, 8 ; vjuA o-o&;
"they were asleep" Ov. 168, 8; oJx> IjotoJ vjuit^JLJ) ^^^i? "that he-
cause of Daniel they saw the light" Aphr. 67, 9, and many such in-
stances. Necessarily of course the pronoun becomes specially conspicuous
through adverbial adjuncts, as in us ;o.. A-j ,oj£i "they alone remained"
Sim. 269, 1, and thus, frequently, o<$ ■•{, ]BJ a{, ,»f H{ &o.

B. Un-eniphatically even ^i{ may be placed after the verb in place
of ^A: J^JLn= <»4 <^-pl-llf "that they have stumbled against a stone"
Ephr. I, 404 F; ^qjJ ~ v ■ 7 i[ JLi^V "whether haply they had dealt in
subtlety" Ephr. I, 496 I; £i{ voljl? y-l "that they should recognise"
Ephr. I, 498 E ; vpj{ o-^ir* , " au,i they flew" Ephr. in Zingerle's Ohrest.
279, 5 ; ,oj| ? |( "they are coming" Jac. Sar. in Bedjan, Mart. V, 619, 3.

§§ 821. 222. — 175 —

<T., withpositionboforotho verb,i»A£^ap ^i\ ^>1 "both of thoin (f.) came
ii|i<m fheo If.)" is. 51, 19.

I!. On tliu IV.rs .1 I'niiiiiiin in a Nominal sentence (§ HOU) as

subject mid copula, v. § :tl.l ■»/.

< )n placing oo», —en &c. lirst, I'm- Bio »aku of emphasis, v. § 227.

§ 221. An enclitic, ooi nl'i.0.11 gives prominence only to the "word, Snoiitib
whether niniii or vorli, wliicli it follows: ,i.j^x> (oVSs ooi $i\. "wo adore jmnpiuui-
iinv tiod" Mart. I, 227 piim.; JUaoji Ws^ooi lE.'iVs, "for it (I'.) resembles ™"J'"~
11. hiiililimj" Aphr. (i, 12; ^£0/5 obi j W-SV ^oot^^Ji "fclicir foot run to
evil." 1'rov. 1, l(i; < ovi . 's « JL^. ooi ^.01 ^jj^b "on that acemint it was
that Solomon Binned" Neli. 1)1, 2(i; fc^~>j ooi ^^il .{ "if thou art willing
In Irnvni" Spiel, IB; ooi^J "go!" Gplir, ITT.,XT/V (twice) Ac. it stands
in t.hin way as a strengthening particle, alter Demonstratives and Personal
I'ronouns: .a^o^ ooi ^n -i\. vfXiv ftioorai Matt. IS, 11; ^pL^sxx ooi o-^.
i/j.01 imoffjeare Matt. 25, 40; oiloVi*.! JLiot; ojoi "this (= ooi )ioi) highly
celebrated person" Ov. 204, 20; ^Ny oioot "he has spoken" Aphr.
5, I ; and thus repeatedly ooi oVv or 00VX "to him"; ooi 001 ^x. "there-
fore"; ooi ooi "that" &c. (m. and n.).

§ 222. A favourite mode of accentuating a determined noun is by l'roBominiii
applying a Personal suffix. Those suffixes are, found applied as follows: — emphasi-

(1) With the Genitive reference, v. § 205 (!. ,"'Zd""'""

(2) Along with prepositions, the attachment being contrived thus:— "»»»«•

(a) As in the Genitive reference by means of j, c.//.J^*oi ooi; on«x
"with that wickedness" Ov. 200, H. This construction has been ascer-
tained in the case of ^i., 14^, ^.j, ^S>, 7^., it^ (also *^=-^)' ^$*>
)o£js (u^ojo-o), tLw, uyto, JE> ■ L , 'lo_ol, 'Ib-oL; it is completely excluded
only in the case of a andV, apart from those prepositions which never
assume Biifftxos at a,ll.

(b) Through repetition of the prop., c. //. l»ja> ^vOi^i-"upon that
stone" Aphr. S ult, or by placing the prop, which has the suffix after the
other, -oioSkX .a-1^ JLL501 00L ■»*o-«^ , 'Wo "and of .lesim [or .loslma]
it is farther thus written" Aphr. 112,!). Thus are construed <J>,'^-> )»-^->
_o, -X (also to mark the Object; v. § 287 xqq). Repetition is used also
in cases like J^jA ^o.£* ^ I001 ,Sj-o Ji%=>{*> lm.oi ^oofx loot ,60^

- 176 - §223.

JLoovso "Moses was a leader to them, and Jesus was Guide and Redeemer
to us" Aphr. 223, 25. We have even JLiao.^ o£w J.'i*= !°^ ojfc. -M.|
"there appeared to him, the blessed one, a vision amidst the Hock" Sim.
270, 7 (where there is no special emphasis at all; the London manuscript
has merely t°M> '^A. e»A If); <*i>°i^ ■*? !«*>,<*? **»? "which Hod
in his own person did" Ov. 164, 2 &c.

(3) With an Object-reference hy means of Object-suffixes to the
verb (§§ 288 sq.; 293).

§ 223. Personal Pronouns must also he employed to express the
reflexive meaning, when the Verbal form does not already serve for that
purpose. In cases like «1&X ofco <°°^ " lle le(1 tliem to hilll!elf " 0v '
193, 14; ^ooticS^ v?<»^ <&°r¥ " ae y oal1 U P theil ' ains *" ™ ud "
Aphr. 223, 19, the simple Personal Pronoun is sufficient. In the case of
a reflex Object the Subject-pronoun is often placed alongside of the
prep. ^ with the suffix of that pronoun attached thereto: of*, ooi ^|o
"and he introduced himself" Anc. Doc. 90, 18; W^% 6fj- -* "she
wronged herself Bphr. Ill, 2 (and so, frequently otSj- ow, 6^. -«) ;
i A^ J ^ toJ "baptise thyself" Bphr. (Lamy) I, 126, 10; K^*i u-V H
loiotiis. "I have let myself be caught by his hands" Bphr. Ill, 382 A &c.
Compare farther JLai» ot= of*, ooi "he liides in himself" Bphr. Ill, 10 0.
In the last case the clearer phraseology o>*aia would probably have
been used in prose. In fact, JAaj "soul" and— though more rarely—
W»dio "person" are very often employed with personal suffixes to ex-
press the reflexive relation with accuracy, e. tj. <,.» « i ^ "to myself";
-tyi-. "in himself" &c. ; ku^- y^i -f* i 8 ^ 6 «sauri» kAtu Matt.
4, 6; vjoMiaj <v*fc» "they separated (refl.)" Ov. 194, 10; on>6.ix» ^x
,^v ? N T "is divided against itself" Luke 11, 17 P. (O. is different);
iloiolo ^opabjx^. o^j.ol "they procured for themselves a priesthood"

Ov. 194, 11; iooi^'iao-txiX "spoke to himself Ov. 28], 23. Thus

also v 6o»i»polo and vpoiWiaj "themselves" stand in parallel clausos in ( )v.
207, 25 sq.; but such plurals are rare. Of. too usodiof U>? "my owti
blood" Joseph. 26, 9 [Ov. 281, 23], and even ot^aj? J&o-Loii;. "sildmet
ipsi" Aphr. 455, 2. Even Ikj "essence" is similarly employed; J&aep
oiijA "she suffices for herself Ephr. I, 428 E; otkJ\. (JaoAco "self-

§§ 224 224*. 225. — 177 —

contradiction" Ov. GO, 15; ©tlSJ Jtaa_aIg^oo ©ml2u f fr afto -— o»j "wlio guides
and rules herself" Ephr. II, 451 B; ot&J ^ parallel with ©t.*aj ^> and
ch&qxo ^ Ov. 59, 4; ©»&« <ax. Jji "is at variance with himself' Ov.
45, 6 &o. '*aj and '»o.ju> stand also in apposition with the Subject, e. fj.
of*aj ot^, ^oo) ■ &j ^cuot "he himself", "they themselves"; yoopooxo ^qjoi
"they themselves" Jul. 30, 3. 'iocui> is sometimes much the same as
"quite", "at all", "altogether": <aao[L | ^o iykvlp? juij dfxoaat okcog Matt.
5, 34 0. S. (P. uj») ; Hi^l{ (o^^*a w.^ob.10 hJl sv d/xccprtaig cu hyevvy-
S-yjg 5Xccg John 9, 34 S. (P. s£^a) ; *-oioJs«{ J^ cx&oao JLfc^u "Pate has
no existence at all" Spie. 9, 9 ; ^^eJ^i J^ ^oopob-ijo J*iX» "who do not
at all approach women" Spie. 8, 1. Of. farther foot ot&oxo (J^a JLi-l
^oo)^. "what sort of house had they at all?" Aplir. 352, 16.

§ 224. The preposition ^ with reflexive personal pronoun often * Ieona8ti0
stands alongside of a verb, without essentially modifying its meaning Pronominal

4. Suffixes.

(Dativus ethieiis); o^ uaaj "he went away Acts 12, 19; ys*. ^oajs
avaGTYjQt Acts 10, 26; SC^ ^^®)j "she ran" Ov. 161, 15, and thus very
frequently with verbs of motion ; *oo^» oK*m "they are dead" Matt.
2, 20; Ov. 170, 8; **jl^ -Ki-j jucck~fl Acts 12, 15; <*»!■£> o^ low 5/t-
vrpoa-d-iif jxov yiyovs John 1, 15 and 30; ij&^cp i<=*^S v?°^ °9 Q!t "there
were many Gods" Aphr. 121, 1, and thus frequently with foot and
&*{\ o+xij ^.iw jlofflhX 6£^ KgL^apL? "servitude was foretold for his
seed" Aphr. 27, 10, and thus in Aphr. often directly used with passive
verbs &c.

§ 224*. The mode of placing a reHcx Possessive-Suffix in Genitive Reflexive

Pronominal

connections is peculiar, as m the frequently occurring ^tt^aof. wj.so buMx
o^Ja^jaslj "St. Simon Stylites" ("St. Simon of his pillar"), for which also Q QnH i V e.
often stands Jjq^cdJj ("of the pillar"). So ■— oto-jjo-fj; ja»l "the hot
.luly" Ephr. Ill, 593 F; of^6*,siajLj ^-^H "the renowned", pi. JLu^J
^ootleHaa*-? Ov. 160, 4, 9; wotofJiLj o<5i 5 lat^oviCo/xeyog Mark 5, 15,
16, 18; dps;? wit "she that had the issue of blood" Ephr. Ill, 554 E;
^oot-'^cpj t*V^ J^ 5 **"^ "tbe shaggy barbarians" John Gplu 11.7, 13 (cf.
398, 16) and many similar instances (cf. § 205 A).

§ 225. A. The Separate I'DSKexxive-ProH-oituK withlwj stand both^j.
as substantives and adjectives. ©»^-»? UojLX ^&»j "let us give to time

— 178 — §225.

what is its own" Jul. 109 nit; w^o&a r> J) e»V?° ty{ °*%-f^- £ '^ r " '°' a
tj\6s Kai ol Hiai aurov 06 wctp&jxfSm John 1, 11 ; vj>-=>^-> ^? ^ aXkorpiov
(lit. "not your own"), and ^a-aA-? to v/xirspov Luke 10, 12; o»V"? ■£ *"''
"to one of his own people" Ov. 184, 15; o£j-.f=> vpot-up f £ t-k <? »•»;
"but tlicy remained ovary one of them in liis own (his own belief)" Ov.
160, 21; !ooi -ojob-j e»^-| ^s-j "ours was his" Aphr. 119, 10; oA*>
<oKj| "mine are ye" Isaac I, 22, v. 448 ; ^u ^w| Jot} "for Ave are indeed
thine" Aphr. 489, 9; Jha**5i=o JiA-J oC^.; ^ a ° l n° " iml1 g |lvo " s ' ,is
own mild. and pleasant one (yoke )^J)" Aphr. 319, 10; y^.? JSot "this of
thine (thy distress JSjAoj)" Sim. 331 ad inf. &c— With suhstBiutivos,
to give more prominence to the possessor: ^.5 JSjjo^v. "for our ad-
vantage" Aphr. 459, 3; 0C5-; J&Oj "liis day" Aphr. 30, 5 &c; and in
particular with those Greek words which cannot take any suffix (§145 li);
o£i~> uxtoi.-tVo "his clergy" frequently; 6t^-> ,> rhy i.} "its (f.) public bath
(fol/ttaiov)" Jos. St. 70,20; <rfx.f JLioj "his girdle" Sim. 817 inf. ; <«jfflS|
vpoiA.} "their resources" (oiJu/oj) Jul. 37, 5, and many others. Very
rarely the Oonstr. St. occurs here, as in y±J. ^oiiS.. "for thy trial"
Ephr. Ill, 302 D; vOot.A.5 polo "their own person" Isaac I, 22 v. 454;
o£j-| .aij^.i. "beside him" Ov. 273, 11; ofyJ. ^ ["by his means"
Ephr. Ms. p. 60 v. 261. But i.-(, besides, often stands after the Posses-
sive-suffix: iA.i -fci*o£Jbo s/jlov ^pw/ia John 4, 34; oi^-} ot^4 "his
zeal" Ov. 187, 1.7; ,A.J -UAj "my prayer" Aphr. 454, 11 ; ^i-j ^fooi
"our command" Ov. 219, 1 &o. ; compare jijI "^ajo ,oo£»-| '^otZS>l=> "in
their sight and every man's" Ov. 1 84, 8.— Sometimes ■*-? stands first, with
the effect of emphasis: yV a *» ^1 ""'■'/ dwelling" Aphr. 494, 13; ^J»j
t*v< ™ "our treasure" Aphr. 506, 14; ,k-k**> ^f 10 <i <rJ~> " 1 " 1 *' t '' u
general of our camp" Aphr. 59, 7 &c. Compare w*aj J^*%k& o£±*j
"his soul is distressed" Ephr. Ill, 651 A.

Thus it stands also with Genitive combinations, (§ 205 O) anil that
too sometimes without, sometimes with, a suffix attached to the governing
member: JLi=>**>> o£»»! U^b>[ "the partition-wall of the (said) altar" .Ins,
St. 29, 7 ; l^j) o(M JLjiJ "the lb-others of the very convent" Ov. 21 0, 1
— 213, 4 &c. Of. Ji^i^DjB? ^i-} |lfi> !k=>Hr- " tl10 new racu fol '" KU l »y
us Christians" Spic. 20, 4.— jo^aj o^-j ^f -oiojdq^ "but iu the days of

§ H2U. — 179 —

(lie (said) Pm-oz" Jog. St. 11, (I; )La-oi? «i>-? oiUj pfo "before the court
iil' I lid (foro-montionod) Temple" iSini. 271 mid; )!oi? s*^-! -otof-JS "in
tlir. IuuuIh »f this man" Ov. Kill, 14 &o. For tho must part a special em-
|iliasis, or lit least a reference to something already mentioned, lies in
this prolix construction. Ooiupia'e fartlicr JUiSf^j i-Si S^»j !^o^ "the
good in man's own" Spie. (i, 11.

U. Farther \.) also occurs frequently after prepositions with the
snl'lix, to add emphasis to the latter: >A,i ooi l£X e/io/Matt. 25, 40 in
Aphr. .'(HI, a (in 1>. merely ooi viV); uA.; ui-ft "from me" Jos.St.3,14;
ofj-j ot|&\ "at his house" Ov. 208, 19; oC^-i o($. "to him" often; <;f^=
^«-j "without U8"Aphr. 172,7 &c. We have even ^v. ootj ^-j r;V' to
/os' lie gave" Aphr. 181, !). Farther it occ.nrs with substantives: wotolo-ul
JLAs»j^>} of?-? "under the (fore-mentioned) altar" Sim. 272, 9; oil4i>.
Jti.^oj oti_! "with the saint" Sim. 274, 1 3 ; J^saao JBotj °tV.? ~oiasp|o
"lieforo this Mopet" Mart. I, 181 inf., &c.

.lust as >ap is construed with j (§ 209 B), so is it also withi»j:
ot^-jf .s|* or iS£2 oi^J /xepi/AVTjaei t& iavTrjs Mutt. 6, 34; oj^*} .aj;
'tin/xekriTYfii airov Luke 10, 35; . . . «ji-oi? v 6c*\.? loot >»JJ "he was con-
cerned for those, who ..." Sim. 333 mid.; u\Jf k-? 5 * ^fc "thou didst
care for mo" -Jos. St. 3, 10 &c.

DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS.
§ 226. All the Demonstratives are used both as Substantives nomon-
anil as Adjectives. In tho hitter case they stand sometimos lnyforc, ]. p0 „ omi .
somotimes after, tho substantive: JL^ JLi« or Hit tf£*zg "this king" ; ^'J°°''"
i^.i[ — <i and -ot l^-il "that country"; ,jft\n& JSoi "this counsel of "»»«'»■
ours" Aphr. 293, 2; ^j^-ot ^.y* "these our words" Aphr. 299, 2 Ac.
The majority of tho ancient authors (like Aphr.) usually put the demon-
strative first; others, however, prefer to place it after the substantive; but
thorn is no consistent practice. (')

(') ■With the Edossan JoBlraa St. tho method of putting tho demonntativo
nooimd preponderates; with Rabbftlu's biographer, on tho contrary,— also an Edessan
of a date not much earlier,— tho prior poaition prevails.

12»

_ 180 - §§227.228.

p. r ,o»«i § 227. The Personal Pronoun of the 3 ri person, which is always

w™™«.°* substantive, serves often to give greater prominence to a substantive by

a™™!,"- bein s i )lacecl 1,efore it: "-a- 'H- 5 ^°^ °" !<5o, 5 " tlu,s il ~ a " 1 law ~

am ei.ct Wils the guardian" Aphr. 26, 5; JL2»j| o« **>i ool "again he, — Jore-

before Sub- ° . » , , » a v i » » I . ' !,: ~?

.(»-««. miuh^said" Aphr. 34, 1; loot 6t-k-< JU.»W> JaooJ w^=»-J=p ~« •»> r?
it" "while even his nourishment itself was a complete fast" Ov. 182, 5 fo.
m.»,ir,. Alg b f f. u . t i ier demonstratives: low (Ka.*. Moo- oot ooio ^ oi sa/3-
/3«tov sv aes&2j rfl fafyq John 5, 9; ^*A> oot oot -ouA" jjo ami
when this evildoer saw him" Sim. 331, 3 (Cod. Loud., without 061) ;—
l^ 'l ^^i v ojA axiaj ^f fg "but when these blessed ones went away"
Sim. 332, mid. (Cod. Lond., otherwise); !Ka»o.= IJot -Si "this bene-
diction" Aphr. 465, 13 &c. This pronoun may oven stand here as ( )h-
ject: p--> !f« -°> irpjii &\ (J oirgi Kelt ol rekweu to avro imloOaa;
Matt. 5, 46 sq. (C. S. quite different); JL t . -SV Jiiiso ]5« ooi Jt r ^. "the
Church holds fast to this number" ZDMG XXXI, 377 nit. (Jao. Sar.);
Ifo) ~ot -oiaijo! "informed him of this" Sim. 311 mid.; -oi r 5f .sj
^oj |f<n "David also has said this" Ov. 123, 19; ism in-v . Ijw ~S| "t<i
do this" Jos. St. 3, 22; ^i ^ojoi . . . ^J <;? {$ "but when he learned
this Qiaec)" Sim. 312, 1 &c. Compare in addition -sJiaao ovjaj li^m. oiooi
yi. "it, the truth, makes itself known to thee" Ov. 1 63, 1 6.
w..k«tag § 228. The distinction between the nearer and the more remote

»™,tr!!«T.is observed with greater strictness in the sing, than in the pi. This is
'"""• shown by ^« being very often employed as correlative: } «^-oi "those,
who", exactly like j ow "he, who", > w<i "she who", while ? )io), ? ijot
mean "this one (m.), who", "this one (f.), who", and only on very rare
occasions does the sing, demonstr. pron. appear as a mere antecedent
(as in ; JSw l^adjo «»..> «i»>f{ "the chief Mopot Adharphar, who ..."
Mart. I, 134 ult., at. I, 234, 3; Simeon of B5th Arsham (Guidi) 7, 13;
1,3 = Land III, 23B, IB. So Jul. 4, 4; Busob. Ob. Hist. 274, 8. ; v o.J«,
} ^joi do not occur so often as j ^o). — In other respects also <£j-ot
shares with oil &c., the tendency to weaken its demonstrative signifi-
cation. Compare the cases otijf -«, ^ovjixp? ^ot cited abovo (§ 224*) ;
farther ~- v ; -i "yours" Mart. 1, 182, 8 ; h^'fS «^-<*^- "t° t]w nrat "
Sim. 340 mid.; ifiDoSK K^f ,»{ *j^-*> "but tne adlierents of Illus" Jos.

§§ 229—232. — 181 —

St. 14, 1 , like l-iz*a>t k*a) v oJ<i "the prisoners" Moes. II, 69, 26 &c. ;
whereas Jmi? Ijoi Ov. 314, 17 is "ft» affair of the cup". It is apparent
that ooi, -oi, vjuw, ^i and ^i are gradually approximating to the
meaning of the definite article, for which in fact they are directly used
hy certain translators from the Greek.

8 229. In rhetorical antithesis "this — that" (= "the one"— "the "TU»"-

H "That".

other") we find liovX— JSoi Ov. 119 uU.; Jul 223, 24 s<i.; Moes. II, 100
v. 371; -oi it>A — in Uriel v. 383, like ooi ^> oot Ov. 119, 14; ooi pi. )ioi
Moes. II, 84 v. 117; <j^-oi?° <^-w! Aphr. 4B0, 16 &o.

8 230 "Tlic very same" is expressed liy repetition of the Personal "™« *<»»

o ' Bamo".

Pronoun with t-= interposed, which here has still the meaning "as" : Uj
)i P~ ooi ^a oojo ooi "one and the same nature is there" Ov. 80, 4; — ot
-oi ^3 (Isot) woi "she is the same" Moes. II, 90 v. 237 ; Ov. 67, 7 ;
,ojoi ^d iOj[ vOJot "they are the same" Mart. I, 11, 9; !ooi ooi? lovSs
ooi ,-o "Hod, who is (always) the same" Moes. II, 106, v. 482; ys ofj.
~ H~ V.\ e>^- "to this very companion of his" Sim. 370, 4 (Cod. Land.
ofra-u oofi. oiX) ; jk^opo —ota oA ^ 6|£ "in that very chariot" Sim.
301, 11 (Cod. Land, merely 'saa 6*0); o^-f yo ofi-s "belonging to the
same" frequently, &c. With additional emphasis we have oiooi ,j} 0-001
Jsasj. "it is exactly the same people" Ephr. (Lamy) I, 467, 11.

INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS.

§231. £, oiap (= ooi £») "who?"; J^>, ^i, )ii, ,a*> "what?" *>'«s»-
have a substantive character. Yet sometimes we have U*> &c. placed r ro nou..
beside a substantive, and signifying "what sort of?" : Jijto- U*> = ]VW (IB u„. ««a
"what sort of advantage?", "what profit?" Bool. 1, 3; JiiiJoi Ji» "what ^" tt ™-
kind of penalty?" Aphr. 261, 6; JliJoi joS. JJLao "what sort of good now?"
Aphr. 468, 16; ts-j (lA)os ^ojo "what kind of distinctions exist?" Asse-
maui I, 449 (Isaac Ninivita) &o. Such a use of ^> is quite exceptional,
as in ioot »■'« !%*%> QT V " to w ^ at r ' cu mlul w0lU1 ^ >■' ' ,0 °' a J ■"' ^ a0.
Bar. in lingerie's Ohrest. 374.

§ 232. A. The simplo |i is considerably circumscribed in use, "What?"
through the forms which have n. It stands (1) in short questions like
! jLa.2 Jbo, ~i~"l >*>, ya.% J» &c. "how stands it with him, with thee?" &c.

- 182 — §§ 238. 234.

(properly: "what is the news of him?" &u.) Ruth 2, 5; 3, 10; Bphr, II,
505 I); Mart. 1, 13 2, 2 &o.; ? *jSv. Jb2> "what aileth thee, that . . . ?" Hon.
21, 17; ^ JL^o ^j. tI 7tpd( iiluZf, "what is that to us?" Matt. 27, 4:
similarly (2) as a Correlative, ? J*> "that, which" ; also in the meaning
"■when" "if (§ 258, &c.) : (3) As an adverb, — like liJl. ^o Jbb ri rsrwr) y
itiXri; Matt. 7, 14; uii-y «^& ^° " ll(nv ll0 ''' e ,u ' c % wordsl" ()v -
156, 22 (Var. Jhaj>); otfeacp ^^° J*> "bow foolish his hook is!" Kplu\
II, 456 D &c: (4) In compounds like lis "how much?"; JboS^ "why?"
(also )""*«■ , frequently LL» ^Sj.) and, like b^V?, "if Imply", "perhaps",
"lest perchance" (§ 373) and several like compounds.

B. JU& too is used adverbially in various ways, u. ij. ^--a*) LL&
JUS^a iooi ou^s "how then would man ho different...?" Bpio. .'I, 7;
5 Loot [$$« Lii "why should it he necessary, that . . . ?" Aplir. 350 nil;.;
of. Ov. 67,' 12; ivlj y>\J> Jii "why standest thou?" Macs. II, 70, 10;
■ "■*'• JLL& 5«ej Ejjoiw/ - A - ots 15 > 36 S !V°'" Mt* - ^^^ " t '™' " l wlmt
way did the Messing help?" Aphr. 347, 11, for which 346, 19 gives aw
oi^o^oa U*^-, like y"«{ . *»--| ij oju» "wliy is thy face without shame?"
Aphr. 318, 9 ; ,okJLiJ.f !^a*» JLi-uaof JB«s joi* ai& "why, said he, do
you appear in this sordid dress?" Jul. 42, 12.

§ 233. ojaa signifies "who?" like ,jp: )iv9J oiso "who will main-
tain" Jul. 15 ult\ (Oot-ij-l oi^>j JiaJ^o ^4 "whoso hooks are those?"
Sim. 269 inf.; l&aaj y^^ofy "for wlio couvits up?" Sim. 36H is/. &a.

But the oSi, winch is involved in oi», may also servo as copula :
then olio is "who is ?" e. g. Jul. 43, 5 ; 56, 2 &c.

§ 234. A. IL{, lf.J, ,/>.$ may lie used substantively, e. //. ai-J
(= oo> Lj.|) "who is?" often (amongst others Ephr. Ill, 359 A) exactly
— ofca (but differently in j lias i^j ojl.J "which (mouth) then is the
mouth, which . . . ?" Ephr. m, 593 I)); J$X> JLLJo *Jk,\ JUUo >a.fj LLJj
"who may he just, who violeut, who sinful" Ephr. IIT, 310 b 1 ; x*^*b»
■^s. kjtv> WiJ/ oi Trpoa^xdiss . . . ; "with whom had ho vexation?"
Hebr. 3, 17.

More frequently however the word is used adjoctivoly, v. § 202 K ;
see, as farther examples, l^j. JIJS»j-J !f-j "wliich religion is true?"

§§ 235. 236. — 183 —

Mart. I, 182, 6; i'^a ^»J "which writers V" Efiin. 368 raid.; t-^lU
J4oJ "for, what mouth?" ibid.;— Ujiioi >-3 <^~! ^ "of what oom-
mamhncnts thou?" Aphr. 31.8, 11 Ate. The separation of the interrogative
from the substantive is more marlted in !v°<^- M *M £° " 1KlA frl,ra
what oouro.it art tl.ou?" Land II, 141 paet^ M M ^l €» ""»' wklt
seed art thou?" Apost. Apoor. 198, 1 ; Juio. ^>M l{Jf <&« md/UK*
Arts ifisls Luta 9, 56; JAo^iX. !*>%. v °j( L^» I'A " wllllt ( " HlS0 in-
duced tho laws?" Ephr. II, 453 B.

B. All tlio Interrogative Pronouns may 1)0 employed as Correlatives
also (§ 236 A).

THE RELATIVE PRONOUN.
§235. The general Kelative ? betokens of itself the attributive m.Mu.
relative-clause: , >A^ "the king, who" ("whom" Ate,, according to the „
internal construction of the relative-clause, v. § 341 s 2 g.),-ai.d so also j r » •
"he, who" or "one, who"; ; 6-1 "est, qui", "stmt, qui" often; *£^*.?
oo, £& ^^a ;_^"for He who is almighty is one only" Spic. 9, 22;
hZ W.J "he who has exerted himself, is glad" Aphr. 114, 15; ^!?
"'and those who so wish" Aphr. 496, 12; ft^ Wt^ " Wm > who ho,lom ' S
her" Aphr. 497, 3; ^}-J e*^ " to ' lo what iB g °° ,V ' ^ ?' ^'T"
IjLi oft -5|iijj[ vojji (ft "what his cars have not heard, ho sees" Aphr.
281 5- ***} <S> "from that which is evil" Aphr. 497, 2; ,jfc-»? ^*-
« S UJ> « ea (falta), qua, praedmd" Or. .179, 6 Ate. In particular this
shorthand mode of expression is a favourite one with Aphraates.

§ 236. A. Very often, however, in cases where there. is no sub- ^
stautive antecedent, aCorrclativo takes itsplaee. Thus with demonstratives,
, oft, j -ft, ? ^>«, ? <&*; J ^! with iuton-ogativos t *$; ? U-J,
, (U, J ^-li and } Hi "that which". So for instance j Jl-J and } oft
"he who" interchange without any difference in meaning: Spic. 5, 1, 2,
and frequently. But indeed these words are often heaped together be-
fore J. Thus for example, j £ oft "he who"; "one who" Aphr. 138 2;
Spic. 3, 6, 11 Ate., for which in Spic. 4, 7, appears even ? ^ oo, Sft
"he who" - "one who" (universal statement)—? M-i °* " ll0 wn0 " ( iu "

— 184 — § 236.

finite) Spio. 12, 19; (general) Spic. 2, 2 &o. Hut. > <$~| ^i "those
wlu." Aphr. 182, IB; 136, 19, 22 cfc.; Or. 78, 5 (pa, /ptae i.) ; rarely
» «^-i v?-"* "those who" ()v. 200, 14. Apart from gender and number no
decided difference in the use of these expressions of the Relative is visible,
seeing that different forms are frequently found in juxtaposition, with like
meaning. For the expression W.f cited above, one might also say
Vl °*h '*•? ^5>> ':>-? M-J, Vj <j>p oot, Vj JLLJ oot; similarly witli the
PI.— Thus too ? Ji oo) e. #. Ephr. in lingerie's Olirest. 327 v. 177 (var.
j ^oio oot).

B. Tlie Demonstratives and Ji.|, followed by ;, also appear often
alongside of substantives, e. g. U±g $ wo, ot^A "by means of lus
knowledge, which is unerring" Jos. St. 6, 9; ? ^ji, p^sfioo !«.» "the
cluefs and leaders, who" Spic. 12, 2; , j^of ^ojii K *to t X"to all the
male children, who" Spic. 16, 23; ? ^j.i J^j "the convents, which"
Sim. 277 ad inf.; » [|»j (J^v£ "the good, which" Spic. 4, 6; i^ojsjp
? <jVi " tlle chastisements, which" Jos. St. 2, 6; ; Ja-So-a J» ■ { "the
stars, which" Spic. 14, 14 &c. Of. farther ? JULJ oo," JB^J £ "from
another one, who" Spic. 19, 9. The Correlative is conveniently intro-
duced when the substantive is more distant from the relative, as, for
instance in > ,^o) (fco* oilo-Suo! l&o, laZzo J'-™;y ttXmA •^ t^L.^.
"especially for the poor, afflicted ones, he showed great zeal,- those
who" Ov. 203, 25 ; j ^c* . . . I^ii^o "the writings . . . winch" Jos. St
1, 1 See.

0. For the pure Neuter there comes in very often } »J*> "some-
thing which", "that winch", e. g. JoV^JI w^oojj pf*> "something which
would he foreign to God" Ov. 176, 5. Instead of this, there appears
also } p£* oil, e. ff . 1 Cor. 15, 37 (Aphr. 155, 8); Spic. 10 nil; thus too
} pfso ooi iita Ov.121,20. jSm and ^.i may also come before j p;»:
yV U»V*» Pr* "* >M ? Jt " hea r tliis, which I write to thee" Aphr. 79, 14 ;—
> •?>$& ISoia Jaj "has pleasure in that, which" Spic. 1, 7; p^ JS at
yV k?k?! "7iffleo, guoe script W Aphr. 200, 12; ^JLj ;oi*> ,-N ^
"cm, quae decent" Aphr. 116, 11.

.1). The variety of expression becomes still greater hero from the
possibility of adding, in many cases, a^. Cf. e. g. j JLL) ^i "ovory one,

§ 237. __ as -

"wlm" <>v. KM, II; ? ^( ^i "nil those, who" Aphr. 133, 17; ^ofxi
vUajpj ^-"| <j^~°i (j? "omiiiii vitro, qitna jimxnnt" ()v. 78, 5 &».

II. NUMBRALS.
if 237. The numeral Htjuids, by way of apposition, oiljuir In 1 ,- Nnmorai
lorn or uller (lint which is numbered. Thus the variants in Aphr. 4(17, I uumi>oni<i
l_mi*ts.A&l. JU\*> unci <^i"^*> j »-. tu.*>l. "18 kind's" arc equally m "° t -
correct grammatically; null thus ^v.i». iji .Mil. 220, 23; 223, 4; 244, 24;

Uii. Ui ,iui. 247, a, aa; a-w, :i ; and lJUo jUia .lul. aaa, 5; 223, ii arc

interchangeable expression* for "100 years", tracing the numeral first is
tlio more usual practice. The numbered object fakes cither the Aim.
or the. Kniplt. State, as these examples also indicate. Mir further in-
stanceM v. § aoa 1). .Except with j£, ^ the noun is always in the plural.
Notice however job- ^uo ^ms Aphr. 50, 21; 57, 1; boo* *Lo ^psai-
Sim. a7a till., "twenty-one, days", where ^j calls forth the. sing.; lint of
course the plural is retained when the numherod object conies first:
l^uo <»*3*f ^li. Aphr. 466, 17.

The pi. of *a!Ss sometimes governs a Genitive with j: ^*-£-3n 1\\m.
U±jtf "six thousands of years" = "0000 years" Aphr. 36, 20, and fre-
quently thus with JUii; J«ivi-i; ^aSs ^'jl. "2000 men" Kdcssan Ohron.
I'd. Hallier 146, 6 (Doc. of 201). In the same fashion (A^'j ^.ym^
(>*..',,^,nrij-o; "20 myriads of Christians" Jul. S3, 8.

Between the numeral and the numbered object a short, word may
intervene: thus frequently in the O. T. and elsewhere the word {Aot, in
the phrase "jitiiu n crut mmorum", is, </. ,*!*. loot l)bo ta "he was a
hundred years old" Apln*. 235, 18; farther jiS-^-a ^iii u^. ^t-ni:w (*o*
"twenty years have I been in thy house" (ion. 31, 41; ^u[ Jjblb^at!
^jSKap "it is 400 shekels" Gen. 23, ]fi; Jiia,. ooot t ij '"^Ji "for they
were one people" Aphr. 207, 22 &o. A particle comes into the midst of
the statement of number itself in ^Si. *aio **v4° ^)l i|*>kvt "it is
305 years" (or lit. "three hundred there are and ninety and live years")
Aphr. 3!)!) tilt. Rarely is (lie numbered object left to lie understood, as
in o^jtL; )J S> nn j loA. "at the completion of his nine" -~ "when be
was nine years old" Josussabran (Ohabot) 509 till,

Ordinal

numbers

— 186 — §§ 238—240.

Dotermi- § 238. The simple numbers may always lie used oven in "deter-

timt wiiioii minatiou", e. //. ^Sjojtaai*. ^jJL "liis two cloaks" Apia*. 404, 21 ; Jk^fcx
is num- ^otop&Xi "tit his three clistsiiiles" Aphr. 400 «,& &c. Of. the examples
in §§20^1); 203. But the forms set' forth hi § 149, for numbers up
to 10 inclusive may appear also in this use, e. g. JL&o'j ^omBsasjJ! ^s
sk r&v reaadpw avkfxm Mark 13, 27; <m.mVot ^*^o( ^op:ft^i "these
three views (opinions)" Spic. 9, 1.4; ^o^ls^l, ^.o* "these throe things"
Apia*. 31.9, 1.5 (by the side of which, lino 1.3 fcC^-t W^ ^*^o^» "for. in
these three things"); JL^o.^- A^jjL "the two worlds" Aphr. 493, 2;
)n\vi v 6op-*kisa_£> "the five Icings" .Tosh. 1.0, 22; ^o^ts. iivi ft V ^il JLiliio
"smote the live (women)" Mart. I, 126, mid.

cardinal § 239. The Cardinal numbers in the genitive are often employed

for the Ordinal numbers: ^ii\ J&o* = Jjl-^1 Jlboo- "the second day" &c.
Thus for j_lL*>L Jj^a "in the eighth generation" Aphr. 474, 21. the var.
is JLLt&lj f||a. In numbers above 10 the genitive association either
quite preponderates (according to § 153), or alone is in use, e. g. &4a^>
|^»o ^y.m.^0 {JL&^aij "to the year (of) 421" Aphr. 475, 2 &c. The
repetition of the numbered object at the end of the clause, as in
^iJi JJLu&ji. kj-^j- J^ofc^. "up to the six-hundredth year" Aphr. 470, 2 &c.
is a Hebraism.

Diitributiva § 240. A. Doubling the word to convey the idea of distribution

xprasa on. ^ ]): lti i r ijy U ij. l)C Repetition) is a favourite practice in the case of numerals,

c. ff. Vwajrt, voji "by sevens" or "every seven" (f.); ^yvg. ^^,a.jy, "by

seventies".
Grouping. B. By means of the proposition J^ "between", numbers are

sometimes taken together as a grow)) : l^kjL yuX v>^a k-o <J-£>JL> "seven.

women together shall take hold of one man" Ephr. U, 26 A; ^N.oa, ^

J^aij k-^ oi^ "while four persons together carried him" Mark 2, 3;

xooyvo ^jt Jk^taSk. "for two of them together" Jos. St. 85, 1.0.
Approxi- O. Approximate numbers are indicated by two numbers following

hwn. a * m " ca(, 'h other without being otherwise connected: ^iau£po t^>l> ^2** "two

or three eunuchs" 2 Kings 9, 32; ,6<h±*> ^»*J ^jfy-l "thirty or forty of

them" Land II 48, 13.

§§ 241.. 242. — 187 —

§ 241. The Cardinal numbers in the feminine, oven "ilhoul. im •»- «•«"<"

companying JW, &&), denote the numeral adverbs of limn: if" "»»'■" i ■»■

^>1 "twice". Thus <;^o I^ia; "onoo or twice." Marl. I, IM, '•>, »<"l
often; although fcjJ.o ^.blo JLitef "for the lirst, Horomil, ami lliirJ lime
appeal's. So too if" if" "again anil again" IjiuiiI II', Still, 7. "Ktir llie
■»'»timo" may he 'signified also by means of 7 (§ 2(11) »): ^1,! Aptir.
19, 16: 81, 15. The feme wiftwi which something regularly memfi, ih
expressed by means of V: ,-JU. vn^jJI if" "<>««« >" U>« l '"" 1 ' >''"■"'* ''"*'
St. 28, 8; ^ia. J^a^. if" "once in the seven days", «r "every seven
days" Spio. 19, 19; of! <^^- if" mavfa; (literally, "one ill lem llimwiiml
[times]") Lagarde Anal. 145, 14; l^ssol^- if" ** oia\el/J./xaTU>v ("mieo
in a long time", "at long intervals") Sooltuu, feed. IM) nil.; J ■"<■»-> if"
"sometimes" Job. van Telia (Kleyn) 88, Ifi (var. Jm-d nidrly): 01, «,
and frequently. C) Instead of this (i 8.V. to express miiirronw) w« l'" v1 '
a similarly used in il^*a if" "once a-year" Ephr. 1, 22.'l h,.

Multiplicity is expressed by means of ♦." set ltofnru tlio number
concerned, with or without s: <;;>k= jJ» "double" KSx. 22, 3, (<> <"|i- r"' ;
IJ&a jjC imraiTanrlaaksia Matt. 19, 29; Mark 10, 30; lmkc H, H; ji
Ifcmfea "tenfold" Jul. 115 ntt.; J«vi;-> o^*P ji ^up"""**""' 6 * ^Wou
Sir. 23, 19; uoiii\% il^-l ji ramXaahg Sir. 43, 4; j ;ofi2> ^ij" tjjL r"
"twice as much as that which" Ex. 16, 5 &o. Thus, often *&-o fit "Iww
much more".

Bern. In Bphr. II, 227 0, ^jt ji stands for "for tlio 2'" 1 limn".

Manifoldness may also be expressly denoted by means of J^a-i (>»».)
"doubling": y&jp. itjimv ■ ■ ■ a£ ofc: "was ton times greater" Sim, :i7:i
mid. Gf. iUd. 301 mid.; 325 mid.

§ 242. The method most in favour, at least in the older wnliiigs, »onn
of expressing the reciprocal relation™ by means of it doubled ^X*: v dvmj
jXOi. fL lutipawm dXKijXov; Matt. 24, 1 ; of. M alt. 25, 32 ; M ark I , 27 &v, ;

( l ) For the more ancient period however, the oxproBsion in hardly evor found,
except in translations from the Greek. Generally sjioalrino; wo ar« obligsd fur nl,-
vious reasons to have recourse to translations, oftonor than is desirable, in dealing
with these numerical expressions.

— 188 — § 243.

Jb »&& fi "one lic-liiml the, oilier" Aphr. 507 lilt and frequently:
»jl>; Jj Asl )k>a£cp "tlioy arc opposed to one. another" Spic. 12, 3;
Jb «i. j^j l^jo&a "through mutual intermixture" Spic. 4, a:); (jvx>
^.jj|, (| ,j!Ij ^ "and let not one calumniate the other" Sim- 396 mill Ac.
Cf. §§ 319; 351. Or else the wonts arc mo together into the single word
iflii, as if the foregoing expressions might he read iffii vjumJ, Ski,
U.iSi Ac. Thus we; find !>fCi ^i. Luke 4, 36 1'., where S. has ^L joi. ^
like Luke 2, 15 P., and thus too JjfO often with prepositions ; farther com-
pare l?t-w? *»t*- f'.«~~*~ "they reside in the ueighltourhood of one
another" or "they are neighbours" Moos. II, 84 v. 115; ,-Jv.; I^u! J
i;JX; «aot Jfjnjl v lo oot "if there is honour, it is ours, and if there is
disgrace, it again is on hoth sides" Ov. 151, 17 Ac. Notice ^A-vs ^-oiio
if^Ci; & .ooila-uao "and their strokes differ from one another" Him. 29(i
mid., and Ij^iij & ."?i ■ ■''■ ■'« ^V';" 1 "their odours are different from
each other" Sim. 382, 8; !;fi? JJ^J £> y-J "as on a common footing"
Philox. 154, 7, where the genitive relation is expressly denoted.

Bern. The somewhat cliildlike method too of denoting the second
memher, even when hoth are impersonal, by f^ajl, f. l|i^?-»-> "fellow, mate
(m. and f.)" has heen greatly in use in Syriac even from ancient times,
e. g. ui>J>M ~t i,~ u A 14J? "one step is higher than the other" Aphr.
434, 17; *t' y ■ '^ l&*>°$ & "from one place to tho other" John 5, 13
0. S.; Land II, 349, 2 &o.— Or tho word itself is repeated; l^(
j^. j ^> u-^m "one reward is lu'ghor than another" Aphr. 434, 17 Ac.

,T. ADVERBIAL EXPRESSION.

§ 243. Some few Nouns of Place servo, just as they stand, for adverhs
of place. Tims in particular k*a with (-ionitive following — "in the house.
•of, in the place of" (completely to ho distinguished from tho like-sound-
ing word which means "between" § 251), e. g. JUjpiii N»a ivrl to rskwiov
"at tho receipt of custom" (E. v.) Matt. 9, 9; ua\ 4-a P. S. or U>{ *-?
0. hi toic toO itwrooc, ixov Luke 2, 49; jlJW. h^a iv By&\d/ji Matt. 2, 1
0. S. (P. iw-ir.); 2, 16 0. S. (P. othorwiso); JXcgj Ifiucp k*a "in tho
sanctuary of the noble martyrs" Ov. 163, 25; JL-^oji. k-o "in tho country

§ 243. — 189 —

iif the Samaritans" .Till. 100 nil. te. Also "brio Che place of": o»-*>»[
fo&l td "throw him into prison" .Till. 129, 7 &c. Farther -wi^i "at
his heart"* I Ram. 2(i, 7 ; J5DMI i X XV, 342, 453 ami freq.iien.tly (also 'i £
.lohn 20, 12)- JL2aa«. k^j* "in tlm midst of heaven" Spic. 13,24 (15,18
'm. J^jMls, and in this way l^jio suul Ki.j*i= arc frequently inter-
changed) J SU "in the place where" (§ 359) anil several others.

Much mere frequently there occurs an analogous use of Nouns of
Time: HjSuj. v f> into rov SpOpov Acts 5, 21; JLSX^; <*^ts vjHj- "at mid-
night" .Ton. St. 28, 19; po A4 "every day" often; Ui&f- u ^frlg "at
Kunsel" Matt. 8,36 0.; Mark 1, 32 S.; Ov.168,1; Jio] oi^jaj "at the
beginning of the fast" Sim. 282 mid. (Cod. Limit, otherwise; cf. 'm. 'iia
2 Killgs 11, 5, 9); I^JL^d? '^^ " ,nlul y times" Or. 167, 24 and fre-
quently (and similar cases); ,oo£vi J^M "during the day time always"
Ov. 1.83, 8; )oi-| k^. "liy night and by day" (§ 146) Sim. 372 inf.
and often; "throughout hoth night and day" Ephr. 1, 14 ; III, 253 C! and
frequently; li^.!o J'V-. "throughout hoth night and day" Sim. 275, 3 (not
in the Limd. Cod.); J^P W "for a definite time" Ov. 167, 15; i^^aJ
"for a long time" Ephr. II, 127 A ; III, 423 B; IM4s5P W^ "* ™7
long time" Spic. 22, 5; JU^! Iv^ " for ]mi S J aars " Sim. 390, 8 (Land. '
Cod. different) ; JU*. )!»=. <;t>L° *¥* *? <**■ &*» $ " 1mt after ho lmd
heen at this work for one or two years" Sim. 279 mid. (wanting in Land.
Coil); J&o] o£j.£ "during the whole fast" Sim. 282 mid., and many like
instances, Oomparo besides ^o- ^*j "for forty days" Ov. 186, 1;

lia^-l Jipj. /3p«x^ " " fl>1 ' il anort timo " -^ cts 6 ' S * -

So "too with other expressions of Measure of various kinds: (jfi
6j^j JLi»o( oooi "they rejoiced the whole way" .Toseph 192, 11, ef. 214, 5
|Ov. 294, 6; 305, 16]; JaJLo 1%«| J^A*> I|«% "the stone runs along
distanee" Moos. II, 88 v. 197; <^V* k=>i{ ^=4? oiW 9 <£ ^j?
"which was four miles distant from the enclosure of the blessed one"
Sim. 391 inf. (Coil Land. U&Jl yJ) and similar cases. So too i>^°
"ill large quantity", "very", "very much", <:. ij. <fc. ^s#» i*^"
"tarts thee much" Ov.87,21 ; ^^Z IU^&, "who are very sinful" Ov.
1(12, 22 &C In the very same way are used the adjectives u^» "much",
"very"; ^%J? "little"; i-Jo "little", "less" (a. g. i-Jo (y»*4vJ. ^sl*

— 190 — §§ 244 245.

^xa>i ^&Oj "thirteen years loss forty clays" Jolm Eph. 320, 21 ; pia
^.A.o "with very little exception", "nearly" often) ; T-.&- "more" &o.
An expression of measure is also implied in t^o^ doaj "he went out for
a night's watch", i. is. "ho kept a vigil" »;. Ov. 107, 25; Wright Cat. (104 ft,
18 and frequently.

In fact even the Object, when it is not formally indicated, might he
hrought under this category (i. e. of adverbial expressions), (,*.//. in (jjb> ]<*..
"he dug a well", and, in like manner, cases like JZoi oq&j "he went into
the wind(?)" i. e. "he sought to excuse himself". Farther, to this section
belongs the construction of words like lol. "worth", >a ,° E> "guilty",
and several others, used with a Noun: J^qjl (read thus) J^.*aj "which
is worth an oholus" Spic. 15, 23 ; \\ax> ^SXl j "deserving of death" fre-
quently; Ji5 j . mil j-^lk^J iV> "for, one good thing I am lacking in"
Jesussahran (Ghabot) 568, 5 &c.
Adjeou»«! § 244. Adverbs of Quality of the following land occur, but they

oi Quoits." are not numerous: Q-a^-A ^%V^- "they went naked" Job 24,10;
^&jj(. i .ilnni i i "they leave thee (f.) naked" Bzek. 10, 39 ; ... j.ajj
i-. 'ti i'.q "^%W»- J%^p* H 'Nv • ■ ■ iV^* "' le sna " ^ ea( ' awav the
captives . . . young and old . . . naked and barefooted" Is. 20, 4 &c. In
cases like j^-tj "ir! 150 <;? f "but one had been born paralytic"
Sim. 291, 11; Jujb a^^ ""-Ji l0 ^' 0> ? " an d ne camo up glorious out
of the midst of the water" Ov. 360, 7 = ,Tac. Sar., Oonstantin v. 656
there is an actual adjective, for in the pi. it would bo ofv-tj t-V 50 &>■ ;
v. § 216. But usually there is a special clause, with ^j "while", for
such indications of condition ; thus Land. Cod. has in that passago -j>
loot — }JUO.
AdT.ii. § 245. An adverb belonging specially to an adjective or another

J 11 It adverb may stand either before or after it: <p\ ajfr Ijo^J tipog (ajnjkto \ica>
'..'I"..™ Matt 4 ' 8 ; • a **i <*£ " ver y strong" Sim. 209 mid. {Cod. Loud, without
Adynij. q^); ^ Jsl^J "which was much polished" Sim. 271, 8; (_o»j v-K.
"more bright" = "brighter" Ov. 150, 18, for which there is a variant
(Koman edition) p&>» wSkj.

§§ 246. 247.

K. PREPOSITIONS.

$ 246. 'Hid relation of Prepositions to what is governed l>y them s«t»»»Mo»

° x of tho Sre-

is, in Syriac, as in Semitic! speech generally, that of the Oonstr. St. to position
the Genitive. In hoth cases the governed word must immediately follow ^ mm ,
tho governing; although in hoth cases short words may, hy way of ex-
ception, come between (§ 208 A). Thus ^=>)oj> ^.f -aCi." "hut instead
of Kosbi" Ephr. Nis. p. 71 v. 65; l^iu ^(iia "for without tlie First-
born" Ephr. II, 411 E; — p! kma J ^ "^j- "°n the palms of my hands,
as the saying goes" Ephr. II, 267 B; -A s-*^ fc~a "for in tho interval
between" Ephr. II, 3 B ; farther p}(» ot-^*. w^» "^Jjo "because of the
captivity of Adam, Lord" Ephr. Ill, 383 E ; o.-ii>! -*& >K~> "after my
affliction, Lord" Ephr. Nis. p. 18 v. 72 (cf. § 327). Such a separation
however is impossible with a ajldV. — Compare besides, on the Construction
of Propositions, § 222, 1 a and h.

§ 247. In what follows we mean to say something about the use ^..
of the most important of the Prepositions, viz— 5V,, s, ^.ij., ^>, as well
as about K*a &c. "between".

■^, the Preposition of direction towards, employed in manifold
fashion both with reference to space, and as marking tho Dative, serves
also to designate the Object (§ 287 sqq). Cases like \jj. •*&£>- pjj looto
"and Adam became a living soul" Con. 2, 7 are to be regarded as
Hebraisms. But we have relevant examples in H^i^pfi. Jjnul ^ajj
"wlio has bought a pea [bright Indian seed] for a (instead of a) pearl"
Isaac J f, 12, 135, and J^ ifa^ !{&* iV^ t&tf vj " if OIle H* a
sbivo as a good slavo" Ijand I, 40, 5. As ^ repeatedly indicates the
end, so does it in certain cases indicate tho cause: )S t i ;N 1L» "is dying
of hunger" Jer. 38, 9; JLotjX La»L "thou art dying of thirst" Aphr.
74, 12 ; Loi>l. yfi$±- "thou art dying because of thy cold, or of cold &c."
ibid, lino 17; JL?jo^ !?=4 y-!j>N "thou art in distress tlirough thy cold"
ibid, line 15. — With considerable frequency X Bervos to denote time:

(!) Notice how the Peeh. employs circumlooutionB to express "to anoint (him)
king [l^&fc]" and the like.

— 192 — § 247.

Jtvajf.; JUia^ "on the 7'" day" Judges 1.4, 17; Vgi&X "at last" ofton;
*%..n\ "in summer" Land III, 210, 10; J^^alX "in process of time",
"late" Land HI, 106, 25 mid in otter passages: also "after a longtime"
Eplvr.1,551' — 152 B; (ii-U Jajf=»{£X "on the second Sunday" Sim. 2li!)
inf.;— ^ij (k^J^ "after three days", "on the third day" in the (Iredo;
«Ji^fp ,,; ^.ittS oi st&v oi wkst6w» Acts 24, 17; ,-£> U'V^o 'V*-^
o-=.».i» "they arrived a year and a month after" Sim. 361, 12 &c.

Direction in space or time is farther denoted in expressions like
f K . ?~jv JlJo^^^ "to the north of the enclosure" Sim. 290 mid.;
oikaaaa^. Jj, ,»AS».!. »^=> ^> "thirty months after his departure" Mart.
I, 70 mid.; v oo£>a».ttAY JK^-l? Jin* "the third day after their coronation"
Moes. II, 72, 5 &c. Oases like f>&iif>l ^£>- ff"° '**> M*? ""' tll °
hundred-and-first year of Abraham's life" Aphr. 479, 4, and those of the
same nature, — probably arise out of the Hebrew idiom.

With the Passive participle X very often denotes the agent, — the
logical Subject (§ 279). In the connection of this preposition with certain
reflexive verbs the same conception suggests itself, but in reality 'i. signifies
in that case a direction, or a dative relation. The common 1^ ^Jj->1J is
properly, not "to be seen by", but "to appear to one" (liko b nti"l3 — near
it in meaning is pfo -JLJ.J). So IkX** yX Jt}JoK*& )ia.j "how is the
■word intelligible for thee?" Aphr, 209, 4; is{ ^o^j lt,o.x>} JA^JKspo
) i~.~-^ "and their form is perceptible even to the blind" J os. St. (i(i, 1 3 ;
J^j 6(^. la^lj )?;■ !; "how she liked the blood" ("how the blood tasted
to her") Simeon of Beth Arsham 6, 5 ah inf. ; ~%^a^.^ "s^-kj? ha
(pavspaS-fj Tif 'laparfK John 1, 31; ^s. ^AiXt%J lisii "may they (f.) be
thus esteemed by thee" Spic. 26, 2; ^"ij. *=jkj»l #! "tlmt it may not
appear to thee (as if . . . )" Jos. St. 34, 18; yV fujai^i )j . . . |kj>o£a
"let it not bo put for thee in place &c." Spic. 2fi, 3; !j%^- (O-i-o^f
"let them be found for the truth" I'hiloxonus, Epistola ((I nidi) fob 29 a,
2 mid. ; J llv ;~ ^akju!> ot^^J^j ^o.£-*> "because that men surrender
themselves prisoners to the longing for it" \i, e. "are mado captive by
their lust for it"] Spic. 46, 7 ; ^.otoJli.'i.ii^ r*i' , ' - i "they fell to the share
of bis apostles as their catch" Aphr, 284, 2; ^ftj. J>! on.«^fto«> "I yield
to thy persuasion",' "I give way to thee" Spic. 13,6; oiX o f aj\J,l.| "they

§§ 248. 249. — 193 —

became Iris disciples" Ephr. Ill, XXXIX, 3; j $o~>«\ ^$*£il£i "that it
may appear to Sapor, that" Jul. 181, 13. And similarly is it with several
other verbs. Of those -which have boon adduced, ,\. v^jJU, "V kyi.9>^U,
X. >ni\U{, for instance, occur frequently. Also ?o»^i W» ^-^.Kjo, in
the ancient inscription ZJ-)MG XXXVI tah. 1 nr. 8, belongs to this
class: "unci let him ho "brought before the Master of the G-ods as an ac-
cursed one", or of like tenor; compare mffi ^bb Vh&n 1Tl« .Josh. 6, 26.

§ 248. a is the proper preposition to indicate locality and time, and ■
farther, to express instrumentality, for which often the clearer +*=>, "by
means of", "through", — appears. Thus also it indicates the medium of
exchange, the price, and farther it signifies absolute equivalence of value;
.„. X *■"->■ . . . t^jM! TTfjaOyjvai ttoXXou Matt. 26, 9; ^i-j.» . . . ooot ^Xajjbo
"were sold for a denarius" Jos. St. 33, 18; JU ^ootLa^aa JUu^aoa; cj-£>
y±. Jft ^©>- "my life in Christ I do not give up to tliee for their death
(i. e. — in order to prevent their death)" Mart. I, 23 mid.

a, like *^, is employed in intellectual references of most varied
character, and it is associated with verbs of many kinds. A peculiar use,
and, what is more, a very rare one in Syriac, is met with in % 6j[ "-^-50
(■^fc^a "and. denominated them (or designated them) rich persons" Aphr.
382, 7; o-IaLj . . . Jj-pa "they were called wild goats" Isaac II, 326
v. 1513.

Notice farther: l^ai ^mvitg fjLa^a ,6©jV ^Jt'^j ^^=*j ^»»X£o
fij^?? JLSVoA=>g KviNo^uao JjoiVaAag "and all tho things wliich
happen to them, (made up of) — riches and poverty, and disoases and
sound health, and bodily injuries (arc . . . )" Spic. 9, 5.

§ 249. A. ^jo is "from", "out of", in the most diverse uses, both as *
regards space and otherwise. In certain connections it loses altogether
its meaning as denoting the starting point of a movement in spaeo or time:
thus, ©*£*&- ^ "on his right hand"; w5(6p»J ^o Trpdg 777 /cs<l>aXjj "at his
head" John 20, 12; jt^> $0 "after"; and in a great many combinations
with adverbs and propositions. — Tho starting point of tho direction, is
denoted by ^0 when associated with \o, like JlAj, v > \ .o t^j Itf*^ &
"from the other side of the Euphrates and to the East", L e. "eastward
from the Euphrates" Spic. 15, 25; )&**<•> ^ofj ^o "from Adam and up till

— 194 — § 249.

now", i. e. "from Adam onward" Aphr. 496, 5; ^*o<a.° c*j& "on the
other side of him", "beyond him" Ephr. Ill, 136 B, and frequently:
J^ « o^i "on this side of him" ihid; ^.\o «$*> "hesidos him" Jac.
gar. in Moes. I, 31 v. 296.

B. Another application of these two propositions in comhination is
the favourite one of ofxo <*$& "by himself", "alone" ; o£»-o 6vl*> Kara
lihai 1 Maec. 12, 36; JL/f_j& v?°*^S ^ 6c *^? *A* ! '*^» <^°i "***'
.oofa-o ^jov"? JL.-^aa.o "that these men eat with me,— the Egyptians hy
themselves, and the Hehrews hy themselves" Joseph 203, 12 [Ov. 300, fi] ;
lv.oo( 0^.0 ...jv) "I was alone" Land III, 73, 1.

Bern. Erom the Jewish idiom is horrowed the favourite phrase in
Ephr. ofao o^ap "in and by itself".

C. The partitive use of ^» is pretty extensive, of. Ja£ £> fc^.
ova »JLi? "there is no one of the good who stands therein" Aphr. 451, 2;
otloa. . l ^ pA\ ) £, .^.A ^ "while some of his disciples stood beside
him" Sim. 381 mid. ; ^a yZoi %> "[a portion] of thy spirit is in us" Aphr.

488, 11 ; ia.k™!f ^ > j *> .aokaj "scribam (aliqua) ex Us, quae facta

sunt" Jos. St. 80, 1; p-jjp 0^0 Jai £-oJ 001 »t* oi. "the Father did
not procreate one part of him, and Mary another" Assemani T, 310?) inf.
(Jac. Sar.) ; (Joa. ^0 e*a ^aaj4 ,J "if thou mingle any iniquity in it"
(f.) Ephr. Ill, 678 A; Vj^i} i^>-"5 *> »*- 1**1 "he becamo (an
adherent) of the religion of the Nazarenes" Qardagh (Eeige) 58, 2
(=. Abbeloos 68, 11); ^0 Jbaiji? l^a^ <*£ P*^ v?-Jo,a *°<*ao
-J* Jti^ )i toja "and these Canons we have followed, — some of us by
constraint of necessity, some of us of free will" Statuti della Scuola di
Nisibi (Guidi) 10 ult. &c. So, frequently ^otii— voojii "some— some",
a and "a. may be put before such a double 30 with suffix : (Oouuja-o
iioj; )'■ ; " '- "^- 1 ^o^uaa-o Ja»ixia u{^j l*-t? ! "and some of the
saints they killed with the sword, and others they consigned to burning

by fire" Moes. II, 72, 14; ^lya ^i.yX "some of us — others" Glomons

56, 25 ; ]j ^ omg ao ^Jjj ^(toi ^otiyia "with one part of them wo aro
satisfied, with another, not" Spic. 10, 19, 20. To this use of 40 belongs,
not merely ~tf~ ; » . - ■ —SU^ia* "struck him on (a part of) the livor,
or (somewhere) in tlio liver" John Eph. 81, 18, but probably expressions

§ 249. — 195 —

also of time like I^Sj ^o, jUao* ^> "in (a portion of) the morning, — or
evening", frequently occurring; JL^-o ^o "in summer-time" ; — oi<L+£t ^»,
wotaspd* ^o, t-^pa- ^o "at any time -in his, or in my life" frequently.

D. Farther ^s denotes, generally, the starting point of the action,
i. e. the agent, with the passive construction^) as in ©*■£» ""^g-olj ho
was killed "by him" &c; but with the Part. pass. X is oftener used for
this purpose, v. §§ 247 ; 279.

E. As being the preposition of 'removal from', ^o in a comparison
denotes that which is surpassed, whether the relation of comparison is,
or is not (which is the commoner case), distinctly expressed by means of
V-^j "excelling", or >a^ 'much' ; otJ-Lsj JL-S ^o JLa^ o^^j ^*^(oot -^XuE>
"for his goodwill was stronger than the vigour of his nature" Ov. 181, 25;
o*4& tSuJja; "who is more insolent than lie" Eplir. Ill, G58 B; loot fj^j
j-aMiA ^ t-*R- "who was fairer than the sun" Sim. 272, 11; dZ. - <^3p?o
^6oM^ and i^.^ ^oofj^b 'udjo "and more than they" frequently in Sim.;
|o6) >a-^o oai — 5)o^=»-o ^oo^o ^o ^.R.j. "he was nearer than all his com-
panions" Anc. Doc. 42, 13; ja^a-uij ^o i^.Q^.Afip J;ot JUL^ "this folly is
worse than Rehoboam's" Aphr. 251,19; ofi^o ^ ot^o»d^>a woj ojj^o
"and Noah was better in his trifling numl)or than the whole race" Aphr.
347, 4; wjlSo-i^ y-*^ ^> ^-^j "thou hast loved me more than thyself" Jos.
St. 2, 17; JLciaajL ^o ■a-^' . . . Ji-a*| loot jo-^jo "and he loved honour . . .
rather than glory" Mart. I, 1G6 inf.; ^> k-i*^. "was stronger than" Jul.
170, 4 &c. — So also l<*£& ^ foot )1£ "he was too young for sins" Aphr.
221, 12 ; JlJ^y ^> w5) JL~*| "is too great for tellers (of it)", ?'. e. "is greater
than one can tell" Ephr. Ill", 42 B ; and many instances of a similar kind
(in winch usually a relative clause stands with an Inf. and \., o. g. ^Jih
o^Va^wf ^ "become too old to procreate" Spic. 11, 8). Tho corres-
pondence of the two members, in sentences winch convey comparison, is
not always quite clearly expressed ; compare cases like ^o i-%- <*» ij-&
J^.«.Lo ^m4 % a fy si ' si k a $ T $ fA&Xkw fy &icl rots $vsvy/coi>TCC teal ewkot Matt.

(*) My attention has been directed by Siogm. Fraonkel to the fact that «•
standa even with intranaitives used in passive meaning, e. g. Ifa . . . yi* "waa oon-
Bumed by thee" Simeon of Beth Arsham 10, 18.

13*

— 196 — § 250.

18, 13; o&. l>fe&f> J^uoa ^o o^ ^ol JL*>o}=> "moreover she pleased him
more by fasting than ly perfume" -Ephr. HI, 668 A; ;-&..» oi^A^. L^n^Uo
^-^m-l! ot^a ^ "^ $ ie ill 'k) was hommred with him more highly than
with all Israel" Aphr. 329, 5 &o. But in such cases a relative period
usually occurs with a more precise form of expression, like u^? ^o t-^j
"more than me" Matt. 10, 37; Jjfbaa oot ^-^-<*=» p**?*^! $? +*k"$
JLaJ^a jys a & "man has more power in the case of these commandments
than in anything else" Spic. 5, 16 &c.C)

§ 250. Of the manifold uses also of the preposition "^j- "upon"
we only bring forward a few. It means in the intellectual sense "resting
upon". Thus, often ot^xcp ^i», ; ffr*jp ^^^ "upon hope of, i. C. "in
the hope of; ^nvi.ma; Jj^aol *^- "in reliance upon thy benignity"
Aphr. 492, 10 ; t^c&J&i Ity "W "in this confidence" John Eph. 359, 3.
Similarly Jji» *^x "why?"; JSot ^x. "therefore" &c. Farther it denotes
often the being that has been affected by anything pleasant or un-
pleasant: *^--> ft» ]] »*ff ^^? Sri vr(Xvra%Q0 avrikkyerai Acts 28, 22;
ot^o > ^x ^^.uL[ "was acceptable to his master" [Ov. 287, 23] Joseph
38, 1; ^KffkjL ^^ ^aj-»VKi "were beloved by their husbands" Isaac
I, 244 v. 414; ^ni.Ns lyi* "is burdensome to you" Ov. 173, 27; yijJti
"%±., "^^ <&JLh* "beloved by" often; — lis '^i* ^u5» "dreadful to the
universe" Moes. II, 98 v. 336, and in like usage, — frequently; —o)Q^-j
(oot )?.fp "who was odious to him" Ov. 161, 20; similarly ^;,*r^m JUlj? ^^?
JJJLs "who were considered by men as righteous" Isaac II, 192 v. 633. —
\s^ denotes the subject of speech or thinking &c. — "about" (■=> Latin
"f7e");*^§j& is often similarly used. It occurs in data of measurement,
in cases like JL££j; JJJ-& ^jjt^x "at a place, 2 miles from the prophet"
Land II, 345, 9; f!Ss^fl> *» ^Svv* {is^L \*x w.o»o^*J| "who found him-

C 1 ) ol, in imitation of tho Greek ■>?, sometimes takes the place of this phrase
of comparison , «. Thus Matt. 11, 22 P. O. S.; 11, 24 P. 0. S.; Mark 6, 11 P.;
10, 25 P. S.; Luke 10, 12 P. (O. S. j «)i 10. M & (0. S. , «); 15, 7 P. S. (0. and
Aphr. 142, 9 40 -without j) ; 18, 25 P. 0. S. So with a complete sentence ©f instead of
i « is found in Luke 16, 17 P. 8.; 17, 2 S. (P. C. j «!). Thus too in rare oases even
in ancient original writings, e. g, Ov. 175, 22, Servile versions accordingly use this
•| = % even for the simple comparative «», e. g. John 5, 1 Hark,; Is. 13, 12 Hex.

§ 251. — 197 —

self three miles distant from the monastery" Sim. 359, 30; a~#> l\°%
xv i _,"»), ^i. ^oiIV.^Qi. JoSi "the moimtaiii was two miles distant
from their town" Sim. 354 inf. (where "%.s* might even have hoen want-
ing, §243) &c. — ^j) !fu ^V^ "once" Bedjan, Mart. II, BOO, 3; ^1=.? ^i-
vJii^sfo "many times" Jos. St. 50, 6.— IkaJ&A 6t^>- M fyovsa akd-
paarpov Matt. 2fi, 4; ^j-j^^ jtaji -oto^a. b^l iSx" w&te dproug John
6, 9; )ilu wotoSv iooi fc-l "he had grace, in himself" Sim. 334, 4 &c;
y.\-> M !o-f oaifjxvtov %x s 'S J °l m 8 > 48 > 52 s - ( p - ^ ; — ""S* <jW
,6ot-^*- "upon whom (as a Imrden) they were quartered" Jos. St. 87, 16. —
^j>- scarcely ever indicates the mere direction "to", but often on the
other hand the hostile sense "against". (< >n j ^a* "within" v. § 3G0.)

§ 251. The construction of the words l»a, M^, uJu=» has con- "»
siderahle variety. They may have a simple noun following, as in l^a
iki "between the houses" Ov. 212, 9; .la^U-a "between the wings"
Mo'es. II, 146 v. 1081 ; ^owtsl^, vjotM^j ^> "among them" often; ,£
~tK~.,.^ KLs "in his thought" Aphr. 338, 2; )i&i^JJ- Hr"? "amongst
the Powers" Spic. 12, 10 &o. But when various members are concerned,
these may be connected by a o merely, as in the Testament of Bphr.
Juiolo !%=>o JAI iK-a "between the Father, the Son, and the Spirit" (where .
Overbeck's text 147 ult. has JLoo£»- ii^V); and thus frequently in the
0. T., but no doubt a Hebraism. The usual practice is to mark the
second member by V with or without o. Moreover in this method there are
several modifications, in which it is to be noticed that the most usual of
tho three forms of the prop, viz *-=, cannot take a suffix directly but
only through the interposition of X. (1) JjjcpVoaX J**>ooiV k- ? "between
tho liomans and the Persians" Jos. St. 9, 4; uJ£w 6-& b~* "between life
and death" ^nittarqi; Luke 10, 30 C. S.; !),Mjj !Sr^>Hr^? "between the
man and the woman" Matt. 19, 10; ^ o.i*a "between mo and thoe"
Zingorlo's Chrest. 411 v. 46 (Jac. Sar.) ; J£v.jJ -5|QX>a "betweon him and
tho troe" Aphr. 448, 6 &c— - 5|o£y ofj. 1^? "between him and his
father" Ov. 400, 19; yo.i,)lo (Var. yso)lo) y *>(| ^ ft-= "between thee,
% mother, and thy brother" Joseph 225 ult. (- Ov. 311, 21) &e.
(2) JLj^iil^j J'-^t Jiv^i "between the higher and the lower" Moos. II,
122, v. 724; (lot^S 'V* *"? "between sleeping and waiting" lingerie's

=— 198 — § 252.

direst 396 v. 7; v&^Xo a»S! ijua "between Mars and Saturn" Spic.
17, 17; yi.o *4^a "between me and tbee" 1 Kings 35, 19, and frequently;
o£*.o -«iiu= "by bimself alone" Ov. 122, 20; iloa jUSa o .6oui-a
"between them and the ark" Ephr. I, 294 3?, — JL&6or£wo o£s* I\-a
"between him and the Romans" Sim. 327 mid.; ^Xo o£»- k*3
"between lum and tliem" Ephr. I, 101 1? &c. A modification of tin's
method is met with in o£j. is{ ^ Sv*s "between thee and him" ZDMG
XXV, 339 y. 348 (with "also" for "and"). (3) More rarely with k^*:
^aio* k. ^\ ^is"i M Kj^a "between Behoboam and Jeroboam" 1 Kings
14, 30; BkjJj J&o K>a£k. Jhj.*£* ^> ^Xf J% Js-a "between the water
above the firmament and the water under it" Aphr. 282, 13. (4) With
repetition of K«a: )ai»io- k»ao • . . JUS] Ko "between Abia . . . and
Jeroboam" 1 Kings 15, 6, and frequently in the 0. T. (Hebraism). —
Several other variations are not quite settled.

With regard to meaning, notice o(i.o ^oat.i.^ kcct lo~iav "they

with him apart" Matt. 17, 19 C. S.;(') ofi.o ■ iSjaj^a in iaxrrQ John

11, 38; so Ov. 122 v. 26 quoted above; rn«fli\ ~6|aJUs "by himself

Mart. I, 243 mid. ; — farther, JUji£>w !'tf=U^ *-£ JLimio ^j ^jpaai. "twenty

five, however, between men and women" Mart. 1, 137 inf. ; JULj^ ; iA aly

<$■ ^-M? "f° r which of us two is a magician?" Bedjan, Mart. II, (112, 14.

For the comprising or grouping sense, when used with numerals,

v. § 240 B.

Trspoiition. § 252. Jiiv. K*a "that which is between tho eyes" Wd uinmal

i™«t«d iin <2°4 °~*? mBOomymixia &c. are treated altogether like substantives, e. a.

u°™. U °" """H^ *-? 'Vi" " 0I1 1 " 8 brow" Sim - 282 inf.; -otaAaii K.a V». "on

his neck" Bedjan, Mart. II, 229, 10 &c.— The expression o^» twit \ca&

in Ov. 185, 3 is of the very same character, and means "something sufficient

under his head", or "something large enough for being under his head",

i. e. "as a support for his head".

(*) In Mitt. 18, 16, even the Greek text las the Aramaio idiom pirctti raC
mi avTov; Syr. «&.» ■'■■■

§§ 253. 254. ~ 199 —

2. VERBS.

A. PERSON AND SENDEE.

§ 253. Participles are connected with the finite Verb by this oir- J«« «•
onmstance amongst others, tbat they may include the subject of the 3 ,d ».. not
person within themselves: of, j^i-j^oo "and all, that lie does" (rw>) ,xp '"
t*R. 1, 3; (U? »$$ oot "that which he withholds" Aphr. 6, 4; ooi )Ui=A.
JLiioJ t-^"for it is like a building" Aphr. G, 12; JJ=>.fkS> "it is adopted"
A phi'. 8 pom.; I*=J» "^ $ £^ a2v H l 1 *^ **?! Jft- 3oti = i-^ ^
vptvmj if*! a^m ,p,rfi.£j?= <;?°|Jn»o <oe*i- ^io vie*:. <|j^»S!
"for not in confidence that tUy would come back in life did they proceed
thither, hut in the expectation that people would torture them and kill
them, and that they would die the death of Martyrs, were they em-
boldened to do this" Or. 170, 2 (where special persons, Eusebius and
Rahbula, form the subject of some of these participles, and the indefinite
body "people" forms the subject of the others), and so is it frequently.
A similar use is found in the case of the predicative adjective, § 314.

§ 254. A. Erom cases like &^ k&f ^«aj arte m W6J g«S
"our soul is weary of the bread" Mum. 21, 5; ^t& u*aj rfl WU S|30 »m
1DD "my soul turns in loathing from thee" ,Tcr. 6, 8 (= Aphr. 402, 18);
*!&-*.», v^. ? 4 "thy mind despairs" Sim. 301, 5— there are fashioned the
so-called Impersonal Forms, by leaving out the Subject, at first obvious
to thought, but afterwards growing obscure. In Syriac the Fern, pre-
dominates in these forms. Thus we have frequently u^. bgtf, <*V HV
"I was grieved, I was distressed"; £ u.y Ifj or a ^. Lfj "I was dis-
gusted with (this or that)";^ -if- h**{ "I was zealous for"; ofc. U«.
"lie was out of Ms mind"; pt* -X t$Ss "something was a necessity for
me"; a oy hj)& "I was vexed with", and many others. With
Participles and other verbal Adjectives: at*, i^x.^.? "who is in
despair" Aphr. 108, 12; ^ W& U* « "we had no vexation" Aphr.
392, 20; ^ U^ l 9 «i « ^>?? *Vi ^ OT P'' ** ""WW*"* lm
MA to*** 1 Thoss. 4, 13; o^ Uft Ji^o o^ US M^ "J» i was
pained and grieved" Aphr. 161, 8; „V U* JA^. "I was sorry (§118)
frequently; ^ IV*- V " Hl0u tat uot 1,00n P l ' OTokl)dto an S er Josol> "

— 200 — § 254.

258, 4 (= Ot. 328, 25); 6^. l&d:w* "she was fall of complaints" Ov.
155, 10, ,ind th.ua frequently (as ^ k^*.j Josepli 206, 4 ab inf.) Sea. Of.
farther *-!$• I) 1^^°^- ^^ "l°t it not come to thee (as an annoyance)
to Hot out" = "and be not concerned ahout blotting out" Isaac II', 348
t. 1858 (sprung from cases like j^.-^s. !foi ^Na '^i. Jt|t JU "let not
tins thing come [as a vexation] into thy mind" =■ "take not this to
heart" 2 Sam. 13, 20). — The original Subject is farther indicated by a
personal pronoun in o « 9 i fs . 6£** — S) J&jjs jrep/Aujro'f fori) rj tfoxtf fwu
Matt. 26, 38.

In other cases, however, the Masc. appears. Tims ^2*. u."s* oJU
"something pained me"; } <j^-! ^2>- (kjtoJia o£i. loot oJLJ "he mourned
sincerely for those who" Ov. 180, 5; ^i. o.V ^g^Xj "I was eager
for" (literally: "I had leisure for"); "^sk. u^. ^iga "I am zealous for";
u^. *jwo^J "it is spacious for me", "I have freedom" ; t..\ oj^, u^. «*!»,
"it is pleasing to me", — "it is displeasing to me" &c. One says (*3£d?) *9jJ>
u^ and tij. &3jo "I am offended", "I am vexed" (with a and "%,:>.
"about"), and along with these the personal form ksj$ is also used.

B. In meteorological occurrences we have in tho fern. i&^,
kji*jS "it has become clear", '.'it has become dark", but also ioV) (m.)
"it has become clear". So too ov^J? JLt^i »a. "before it was yet mak-
ing for daylight" Sim. 313 inf. (Lond. Cod. quite different), overagainst
iAMJ? Jk£ (jj. ibid. 306, 6 (Lond. God. merely )o»u fi*) (cf. J^a ji.
JUuoJ iootjj "before it waB yet making for evening" id. 306, 4). Similarly
yjniotV l.o5i J=»-^> "it is coming near the darkening", it is drawing
toward nightfall" Luke 24, 29 0. S. Oases like ij^soi "it rained" and
iJg^ol, "that it rain" James 5, 17 Hark, do not appear to occur in ancient
original writings. Notice however ^oinSv looif 1 ) Jbspj )1 '^- |tjj ooi y!
"as if it dropped heavenly dew upon him" Sim. 382, 3. Cf. farther
tool *,fc£ $<>lPt ?" " i<; was oold " J °nn 18, 18; Aphr. 343, 10; ydjul ji.
mama; St/ o&^j John 20, 1.

0. When an indefinite "it" is comprised in a phraso it is generally
. expressed by the fern, sing.: ^nn.Sv i^ JJo JLiju^. <.f J "but if it ia

(*) The correct reading in Lond. Cod,; the printed Ed. gives toot.

§ 254. — 201 —

possible, and is not burdensome to you" Ov. 173, 26; J^US ^.! "as it
comes", "any way" frequently; Loot JL*jm oSs"if ithad been possible"
Ov. 201, 1 ; VoJLi-^i. JaoXi. ^.^ JU "for it does not suit Saul" Aphr.
342, 4; >-.6*o^Jo A^aaao "it was possible for him", "he could" (literally
"there was room in his hands"), e. g. (Oop-f^i k n^rn °^-%f ' J ? ;> - ^°
"and they could not fight" Ov. 89 lilt, and even ^-otofija JLAamj ^sfi
"whatever he can provide" Lev. 14, 30; w.otoj;h£ loot l ft°>iy ; ^»pJ> "what-
ever he. could" .Tos. St 23, 16, Note 2; and also with the phrase enclosed,
r ->vif ^&f£ JL&acp ,i "what can I do?" Kalilag and Damnag, B2, 16,
and many like cases. Along with -oiof;J=» M£-*> "it comes as far as his
bands", ["it is within his roach"] "be can do it" Ov. 217, 15 &c, the masc.
is found in -oiofsjia Jt^i Spic. 5, 13. The masculine occurs also in passive
'forms of expression hke ot>- J»=W "it has beenforgiven him" Aphr. 40, 8 ;
oo) y>y> -Mlf JjLi*J "as it seemed good to that being" Spic. 12, 19;
^ijiX ooV^J o*o%£ra/ i/OV Matt. 7, 7; ^cuiX ^-SL&Jio lusrijmTat i/O)
Matt. 7, 2. Cf. farther wJ^! >*> y-| "how it is" Aphr. 31, 6; JLjo,
6^%-i "thus is it" Aphr. 154, 8; Ik^r"" 6v%-| J|o "and it is not of
foreign sort" Ephr. HI, XXXIII mid.

The gonder fluctuates also in those Verbal expressions in winch a
complete sentence with j "that" takes the place of the Subject: ; Jij-S^
"it happens, that" Aphr. 505, 15, and J -f^Ov. 63, 21; } *f^ Aphr.
08, 12, and frequently; ! ^-Kd and j f£-.Ka "it stands written, that"
fro(|uuntly; } oC*. t-V&lJ f "it did not seem to him, that" Jos. St. 57, 16,
lint j . . . ^ -JUilJ IL501 "it thus appeared (good) to us, that" Aphr.
304, 14; ; ^i. u»Ka4 Jt "that thou Brightest not think, that" Jos. St.
34, 18; } J^" r -i "it is well known, that" Ov. 63, 12, but ( ^i *** 73 '
1 and 4; } i-ij and } (v*>| "it is said, that"; » U*^? () "it is rmpos-
Hible, that" Luke 17, 1; ? y > Hfi) " tllat ;t ma y 1>e to t,iee certain > tuat "
Aphr. 168, 7; and thus frequently ? Ifa ! Hrii ! 'ip^* t?i " al "
thougli it be thought, that" Jos. St. 8, 2. It is always masculine, however,
in j usf), j (jo "it is fitting, tllat".

The masculine prevails in the case of thclnf. with V.e.ff.^ j-^3 W°
uaep^k "and it is not enjoined thee to tire thyself out" Aphr. 230, 5;
oxcopt in established phrases, as in -oiofija kjaffl (v. supra).—

_ 202 — . §§ 255. 256.

Thus too the fern, is retained in verbs like } ^ &J>*>> '^> *^- ^i^ "*

am vexed, tliat ..." or "I am vexed to ..." ; u^ k^%J> "-''■NiJ "*
desire" } "that", ^ "to" (of. p^*.?6)J ^-Jlj w->VO ''°* " tMs ^ llosirc >—
to go to Jerusalem" Ov. 164, 23).

D. In such cases pure Adjectives also are treated like Participles :
; ot^. i-Pf. JU "he is not convinced, that" Aphr. 498, 6, hut ; o»V It,.-** )J
ibid., lilt, and frequently; . <? i N J yS . ►*% "it is well to learn" Aphr.
446 paen.; V***^- -=* "r^ff • • • -wojfio-s "his commands ... to
tell, — is too much" ("Ms injunctions . . . are too numerous to mention")
Ov. 178, 16- i" Jr^ -*« )£>... ll°*> •{,*> ^>- "to speak of the prudence
. . . would he too much" Ov. 190, 24. But the masc. preponderates in
such cases.

Compare with this section, § 201 supra.

B. TENSES AND MOODS.
PEKFEOT.
T»mpui § 255. The Perfect denotes past action; accordingly it is the tense

of Narration, the proper Tempus historimm: every narration from the
first verse of Genesis onward supplies examples in ahundanco.

§ 256. It farther denotes the completed result (the pure Perfect):
Kv~~ . . . .^i^jj "thy letter I have received" Aphr. 6, 1 ; ool <j,i .alo
. .^- ►■.■A\ lk\ (jj,[ JSlj^ "and so the Lord has farther said thus to his
disciples" Aphr. 7 ult. ; otin! Jf? ^^ JUU*A &t rpnn<-. Ji*^*- "tho
scorpion with its sting strikes him who has given it no offence" Spic.
7, 20 &c. Such a Perfect, expressing the result of a prior occurrence,
has often for us the appearance of a Present: thus !ocx "has become"
■yiyovs often — "is" (but also "was"); l&oi JJ "is not", e. cj. Aphr. 84,
12; 19; 158, 20 &c; ujtjs^j "desire has como to mo", "I desire"; t^j.
, ;■■!•■-, ^ "I am (become) weary of my lifo" Gen. 27, 46 (§ 254 A);
^j: "vovimus, we know" Aphr. 497, 17; Ufc. kfc- K ^-j»i "now I know"
Mart. I, 244, 8 &c. Yet upon the whole this use is not of frequent oc-
currence in Syriao; with >^ r in particular the more distinct activo par-
ticiple is employed in preference.

Historioum.

Pura

Peit'oct.

§§ 257. 258. — 203 —

§ 257. The action whioh is expressed by tlic Pcrf. may have hap- ri w .if.ot.
pencil poor to au action already narrated (Plinmrfed): )li»j o^. f^-«
o£s- ;» j W f^*^ "and lie did according to his will in all that he had
commanded 'him" Mart. I, 124, 9 ; *=>J»J? -« "whom he had married"
(iyt&fajtss!)) Mark 6, 17 P. (S. looi a.mj>) ; ^oo^X ao^; foot ^jj»; "^^
I-^ojI vo/j.K,av eKKt!<l>evyhui roi; oeajuiov; Acts 16, 27. Am! just as little
is expression given to the relative distinction of the tenses in cases in
which we put the pluperfect first, e. g. in !|V"^- °« ****[ "^-4! °*l <^*(!
"those whom that one had led astray, he turned to the truth" Ov. 159, 14,
or after ; ^> "since" and similar conjunctions.

8 258. The Perfect in certain cases stands also for the Perfection ff«t™.

o . . o Perfect.

f'uturi. This is specially common after the conditional conjunction OIia*ot fa
time — | Ja> "when", "if", — where sometimes the principal clause is also ,5^,,,™'
furnished with a Perfect; ^ji^? J^> "when we shall have circumcised our-
selves" Gen. 34, 22 ; *o;J . . . JL^i p^*J? & "when the Lord shall have
delivered up ... I will thresh" Judges 8, 7 ; aVl*| JL=o ^fl-ny ^5.) ^io
"and all who seek, find (at the last day), if they have asked" Aphr. 304, 9 ;
■tsn ,.-^ ^po^ <xas« oaajo; JUj "as soon as they have risen, they turn
back (forthwith) to Sheol" Aphr. 433, 11. So is it with the statement of
permanent conditions, or of actions continually repeated: »j^oi? 1&
£»ju*p "if he believes, he loves" Aphr. 7, 11 ; ^tr?).{ W^, *Ki N
IsJlo ^i. o&. *»■*■ '£ fy ol&. Cjfr» "when man draws near to faith, he
establishes himself upon a rock" Aphr. 7, 2 &c. But in all these cases
the Part. act. may Btand after j Jbo. In .aCjik&o Ji'M iij^s? ^? >*>
JiiJJ oHii^j p^. -t°tj ^il!^> fy W; liubo* of*. -JJAJ "when the
body of the righteous rises and is changed, it is callod heavenly, and that
which is not changed, is called earthly, in accordance with its nature"
Aphr. 157, 12, the Perfect is made choice of directly in the principal clause,
and correspondingly in the parallel sentence, where j )J-J appears for the
temporal conjunction } i». Moreover ? ji may bo used to introduce
even the pure Past, e. g. OjaoJ . . . } J» "when they had done away with"
Aphr. 15, 1.

The Perfect is used as a future Perfect in true conditional clauses
also, although more rarely than with ? >*>: i'jjis Lfa> ^io k&v fO> iwfatt

— 204 — § 259.

K&pirov Luke 13, 9; <j***{ «J "si potucrimns" , "if wo can" Spic. 13,2;
yV JS? JLs^o )J fc C^A (Ji "unless thou enter, I do not lot tlieo go", that is,
"tiiou must' enter" Sim. 280 mid.; JU \j JjyJo^ w^-M* (Jlo "unless I seo
him, there is no way out (of the difficulty)", that is, "nothing will do,
except my seeing him" Jao. Sar. Alexander (Zeitschrift fiir Assyriologie
VI, 368 y. 155) ; Kaua^tf v ( |1{ "unless I am first convinced" Spie. 2, 14.
Gf. also Matt. 18, 15—17, where however C. and S. (lileo Aphr. 298,
4 sqq.) have in part the Impf. In the apodosis we meet thus with (jlo
-SUVaSwi "and if not, thou restorest him" Jul. 217, 20.

In the same way the Perf. stands in sentences with o! — oj "either
... or" ; "whether ... or whether" : \i o{ -»- W?*-! °l °> ^ ' " i y' v 'ft o0 i fy
"that thou mayest not again have to weary thyself in seeking him, whether
thou find him or not" Aphr. 144, 22 ; KiJ ol ^iaoi- "-isf ! Pt»S °i
Jiooik^. ^ "he either greatly exalts our consideration, or ho humiliates
us to the very depth" Joseph 196 ult. [Ov. 296, 17]; o£»» JS? *.% J£(r°=
t»%^^j> oi ■■^■jj oj "I go to meet him as a foe, whether he hill me, or
I him" John Eph? 349, 13 (of. Jul. 88, 21 ; Simeon of Beth Arsham, 9, 14,
and many others).

§ 259. The- Perfect is very extensively employed in hypothetical
sentences like ,-aSw ,.? \^-a v l-£.ok*i (Jo^i "if wo had not delayed,
we should already have returned" Gen. 43, 10 &c. (§ 375 A). With
these are ranked cases like ^^j. ^f ^» rig cmoKVklasi "0
that one would roll away!" Mark 16, 3; w^. SJyf >*$ oix> "0 that ono
would say to me!" Sim. 301 inf.; <£*. v°^o ^S-t ,a-a-5-Ji <;? t¥
.qjiXo oaaja "O that one would show you my sins, then would all of you
spit in my face!" Ov. 140, 19; cf. Num. 11, 4; 2 Sam. 18, 33; Joh 11, 5;
13, 5; 14, 13; liao* ioot ,.{ -^?i "when might it indeed he evening?" —
"would that it were evening at last!" Deut. 28, 67; cf. Pb. 41, 6; ^
oo^ ^? — )0| ■>» frequently in the O. T. To this class also belong Karp
ijljlu JI ^i.o -f "then would I have heen ended and no eye would have
seen me" Job 10, 18 ; ^ Mfy "then would I have sent thee" Q en. 31 , 27 ;
wfcoJJ ^i»s|Q ...<;? ~kik£? "then wouldest thou (f.) have been bound to
be afraid . . . and to be zealous" Aphr. 48, 10 ; thus even (jlf^»- <? <^-°>
^pftvft^ji |1 ^.j ^vAo raOra oi SBs; moirfacu Kamva fir; d^iivai Matt,

§§ 260. 261. — 205 —

23,23(5; Luke 11, 42 C. (S. and P. express themselves more clearly in
both passages). — Thus the Perf. is often used after (<.?) -$X and aoUl
-{ "0 if only!" "TTlinam!",

§ 260. The Perf. !ooi often stands before an Adj. or Part, to !»„
iloiioto a Wish, an Advice, or a Command. Originally the Perf. was
mount to indicate the accomplishment of the action as completely
certain,— as good as already done. Tins occurs particularly in the
2° a pore. Thus often p."s.i Jk-ooi "farewell", eppuao; K.oot )SjA
i-^ woisi 6/<u>las Luke 10, 37; ^.fo^ ,o&-ooi funi/tavetien Hehr. 13, 7;
JL to! ^jj k-?«5 1*^% ,aJ ? " take l' ams ( tals;e thou tlle burden) anli
curse mo" Sim. 316 utt.) Jio]a ^Lib{ ^6K.o« ^A ^o (I J "hut instead
of this, be ye assiduous in fasting" Ov. 174, 14; ^f! ,.? fc-ooi " but ltnow "
Philox. 570, 11 ; >^f2 K.ooi (io\ "^a? "know therefore" Aphr. 55, 18.
So farther, Matt. 5,25; Luke 13, 14 ; Mark 11, 25 S. ; 13, 33 S. ; 13, 35 S. ;
Eph. 6, 9 &c. In the 3 ,d pers. : J^sAj <£»- oooi (I "the priests are not to
use force"; Ov. 215, 11 (where there are more cases, varied with ^oootJ);
J-l-i.. totx "let her be esteemed" Addai 44 nit; «^- M& !•=>« |l lA
iicKOKS/m Gal. 6, 9; ^B t^l °S°< "t^ are to be N™*"^ ^
thorn" Ov. 215, 11; Vpivg <^?» a S* " ihe ? must 1 ' ece " e Uame "
Statuti dolla Scuola di Nisibi 25, 9.

§ 261. So also !oot with a participle following is often placed in a !«, m,.

dependent clause, to express an action merely purposed or aimed at: ™

. . . U«Jk» W v?* 1 - 41 -^ <4»* 0501 (I ... ? ^ (Oo^j ...!»« ^3°
Itoia ^.ts-ioooi v 6ooi JU*uS "and gave charge . . . that all those who
. . . , should not pass the night in then- booths, but that five police-
officers should pass the night on the wall", in the Document of 201
A D in the Ohron. Ed. (ed. Hallier 147, 16), and so, frequently after

tJaa; *ai ,.00, u*j ^? lv*»*»& <5c <^" let us take deligllt t0

Observe the fourteenth day of every month" Aphr. 230, 1; 050, «£]
ACV .N|~I ooolf "they wished to carry it [the Ark]" Aphr. 264, 6;

u*L\a! JL it- M j^= *^* v**« * " tlie y M " ,UI "

^deaconesses [daughters of the ordinance] to come singly to the
church" Ov. 217, 9; *£ <*Mk* »?«5 «** *V ™S M b6 / a0 f
in it" Jos. St. 23, 14; ^ -**! <*• *-*•? "^ induces tliem t0

— 206 — §§ 262. 263.

stand" Moes. II, 90 v. 233, and thus, often. By reason of loot being put
first in such cases as the following, these cases also may he referred to this
class, viz : ^ajaso (ooij . . . foot ot£*2w "it was his custom . . . to receive"
Aphr. 391, 8 &a. Of. farther )3Jjo loot JUo ,_^ ^.cLa= t^Vj*" vjootjo
(OovX (frpos rd oshi) wavrdrs ■jrpoaeuxsaOai, ical ixrj sKicaicsTv ITuku 18, 1
C. S., where P. has ^iaX v >ao| JJo; — JLfljo JLojJ i^ooi j[|; ha ixyj onpa
/ajoi "iiipytzfiai John 4, 15 C. S., where P. has JLt{ t^aot ))o (Sjj| oot Jl; ;
— ^q'V j Ka ^oJ^ow |)j juij irpofieXsrav Luke 21, 14 ('. S., where P. has
'so (Ooott ^;. The last examples show that in these cases the Impf. is
interchangeable with the Perf. And, in fact, the Impf. is the moro
usual form,
ooui d«- § 262. The Perfect of course often stands dependency in still other

pendant . ^

p.rf.i,fi. circumstances, e. g. o*sax ^&jo fas*} |jL-> +* "when lie saw that God had
spoken to him" Aphr. 236, 19 &c. Frequently in these dependent clauses
either the Perfect or the Imperfect may he employed, according as it is
the notion of the past occurrence of, or that rather of the ncqllanae of,
the relatively later event, that is being specially emphasised. Thus after
? ^of*-; o^r- 00 ? J^r* - ■ ■ ■ vjjf °- !iio "they struck them, . . . until they
thought" Ov. 170, 7 ; ($ Jbopk. "till there came" Aphr. 2(i, 6 (of. the
Impf. § 267). So in JhjJ(j V*. |l ( >W . . . ^ looi JLVd . . . gjip.
)5JiVa»} "why was he vexed that he did not enter into tho land of pro-
mise?" Aphr. 161, 9, Vdvi might also have been used. Tn o^.tf jSl.'? jjaa
i°->{ "the judge gave orders to hang them" Anc. Doc. 102, 3, tho Perfect
plainly indicates that the order has been actually carried into execution;
thus it is to some extent a compromise between the usual constructions
(aVtJj r o_a (§ 261), and o^JLo ,jaa (§ 334).

rerftotwuh § 263. The strengthening . of the Perfect by moans of an ouclitic

loot brings into still greater prominence the force of 'time gone by'; so
that we may often translate this combination by the Pluperfect: l$,*olf
,ojiX k,oei| "that I have told you" Spic. 18, 18 ; K.001 jkjajil "I havo
explained to thee" Aphr. 172 ult. ; loot ^4{ ^j "when he was born" Aphr.
180, 7; 00S OfijXljll l^ioj "they had been taught together" Ov. 162, 23;
looi *oo^4*.!o "and had been delivered up" (f.) Jos. St. 10, 2 &c. The
iooi is not absolutely necessary in any such cases, and it is often wanting

§§ 2(54. 265. — 207 —

in oases oxactly corresponding to those which have it and standing close
heside them. It has become so much of an expletive that it is found
not seldom in narrative proper: Jb-;dso^» o£i. oooi tt =w* "they gave
him baptism" Him. 208; o^pj iooi jqjs "he arose and took liim with
him" Ov. 109, 20, and thus often in the ancient document in the Chron.
EdeSB., in Ephr., Jac. Bar. &c.

§ 264-. The Imperfect stands in complete contrast to the Perfect FuhlTe
in cases like JhA^k£ ^-^-i <*=! iot^f JjJ-? W "the righteous judgment of
(iod in which he will render account" Ov. 200, 13; (IsoiJ ool loo»J V,
"there will not again he a flood" Gen. 9, 11; "these three things I have
explained to thee hy letter" (jfcjn-slo &aKf) : 'other matters' ^j ^o>a
. m . & (n ootol "I shall explain to thee hy letter from time to time"
Aphr. 319 concl. &c.

§ 265. In conditional sentences the Impf. not seldom stands after iminttat
v f, in which case it is the participle which appears for the most part „
in the apodosis: c»-'jasai- ^ . ft . rn y-s! yBcxL v i "if thou turnest away "
thy countenance, the inhabitants thereof come to an end" Aphr. 493 ult;

"hut if it happens that it proceeds actually from us, the knowledge of
its operation is uprooted from our soul" Philox. 552, 20 &c. The Impf.
is found in both clauses in ^u>j vglt <J "if we speak, we come short"
Aphr. 496, 8; JL*.»!? 64*>ojL joju^ (j ^ nsvu lo ^ ^ . A, . *^ «j
,oUJl JU»f*! 6>'i<^ *! 1£ ^-=4 " if y e wiU be persuaded by me
and will hearken unto me, ye shall not only eat of the fat of the
earth, hut also inherit the blessedness of heaven" Ov. 174 ult (para-
phrased from Is. 1, 19) &c. In like manner with tf-.—^atnj ^ |iSj
«A*» M "fishes die, when they come up into the air" Aphr. 494, 9;
JAooJo litcuS o^ yijlj Jij M "^ -S P*&> rt >H° " and not even
when one stands on a high mountain, does his eye reach to everything
far and near" Aphr. 199, 12 Ac. But in these cases the Participle is,
throughout, the more usual form (cf. § 271).

iional

_ 208 - §§260.267.

MoM § 266. For the simple statement of the momentary or tlio oonti-

oolong. nuou8 pi. esen t the Impt is not readily nsed: on tlio other hand it ia
common whenever any reference to the future, or the slightest modal
colouring, appears, e. g. kji "I will 1,e S hl " S l lic - Vi ' li,; ^ * jl ***
"now some one may say" Spic. 6, 21; i-vk *» fi "' ls 011 ° m ^ U m ?"
"as if, for instance, one should say" frequently; i*U Ij **? "who
would not wonder?" Anc. Doc. 103, 13; (*Ji ,.} Jli "what are we to
say then?" Sim. 303 mid. (wanting in the London Odd,). The Impf.
is precisely the proper form for a wish, request, summons, or command.
Thus, for instance, ^ t*tt "dkus milii" Aphr. 313, 12 (mocking
request); Ifoiokl <£*>« "and then may you promise" Aphr. 71, 21 ; ^i
"let us await" Aphr. 103, 4; t faj , *-f»l y*J " Iet " s fllen , """ l,1 ° '"""
selves" Aphr. 119, 5; ^^J "let him accept" Aphr. 86, 13; (j !^°j°
^ooB £ v »« "and let* not revilings come out of our mouth" Aphr.
105, 2; .~ "^? »o oS^; "let him suffer oppression, hut not oppress"
Aphr. 117, 9 &c.

The 2" a pers. of the Impf. with JJ is the direct contrary of the Im-
perative: ^.L !• "fear thou not" &c. Without JJ howevor the 2° a person
of the Impf. is hut seldom used with imperative forco; the Impt. is tlie
proper mood for this.
n. P ena»i § 267. The Impf. is farther the tense of dependent, subordinate

I „p., ft =i. dMses point;ng t0 the flltm . ei eTOn though the principal clause may lie
in the past: v 6e»^.i. (jjj? -StJ»a>-*»? "and they will urge him to pray
for them" Sim. 290 mid.; ^JUu H'l *** ^r 1 ' W ! V-** «*V.^J
"for this is an admirable tiling, that one should know how to ask questions"
Spic. 1, 20; iJj .,»;■* JJ <$hU <j " if tll0u caust llot J" 8 ** th y" l ' U "'
Aphr. 270, 5; y 7 ■ s lf tf'jei "I wish to explain to thee" Aphr. 345, 1;

JLjJoi ^ax.1.1 Jhkfr* *"■» "love peace that ye may receive the

reward" Aphr. 304, 17— «*aj ^.a^ai? J*= 1tuM*> iocurin avaipeiv
Acts 16, 27; \-Ji^a>l jooflj uj>;>aao (Si? "Mordocai advised that Esther
should fast" Aphr. 414, 5; JUi*j £j{ ^ojjj iioi Jij fj "while he wanted
to give them blood to eat" Mart.1,122,6; JfcmJj -jJf. "began to attack"
Moes. H, 64, 1; ^o^mjj . . . v eot*. j-Aa *-<)> "for it is not com-
manded them ... to worship" Anc. Doc. 43, 25; cna« otj^ "he obliged

§ 268. — 209 —

liiin to take" Ov. 167, 17; ^ eg*, i^^ii ^%J? "he set himself to be-
come agreeable to him" Mart. 1, 1 22, 16, and thus in many other instances.
So too after the words which mean "until, before, ere": jl 1\&j{ ujqj
i&.'SSv - m "- ^>mj; »ixs <£> ~™' "Noah aid not take a wife until God
hail spoken to him" Aphr. 23B ult. ; p^mkj |fl r j- Jbasdjala; Jto4f *&>
Jjc aaoJ "he kept the righteousness which is in the law, before the law
had yet boon given" Aphr. 25, 5; ot^j aw- a^-i.^ IJ tS~ "S ave Us Wood
boforo ho was crucified" Aphr. 222, 5; y^*4S pf° f°^ W$ " • >V S | I»
«*. .. w. ,i ..i~\ )"^~ " w ho reigned in the land of Edom before there
roignod a king over the children of Israel" Gen. 36, 31; -wokjj y-l
yu&tiJ )); jo{j> £ . . . iooi "as it was, before he had yet taken a body"
Ov. 198, 5 &c Here the Perf. might stand in every case (§ 262), but
the Irapf. is more usual. Similarly ^i^ )J ff $ "before we entered"
Jul. 45, 2.— Cf. farther \*a& aa^j W *» t? " wheI1 the time
came for Moses to die" Aphr. 161, 7.

The Impf. appears with this sense, even when the dependence is not
plainly expressed: )!=>[ & «^t- )J "I do not know how to build" Sim.
271 4- Jlija !{>| ^oiyo ^ lfA$ v l "if thy holiness commands me to
go down to" the sea" Sim. 336,' 13; Ua{ ^? H "leaves me in shame"
ZDMG XXIX, 116 ult; lfe*J 0%) ^- o* «S /«' «»* Jolm 4 - 7
and 10; *fjf.J jjiia* "let me send" ("grant me that I send") Jos. St.
' 76 B- U*U !*» ^»t "bring out thy son (that) he may die" Judges 6,30
(aimilarly Judges 20, 13); ^ v a^ ^ -J* **»- "***"*
fa cbnMftr* *. r. X Matt. 14, IB C. (P. ^M, and often smnlarly
used in the Gospels, especially in S. (Gf. on the one hand § 272, and

0,1 Vr A 3 The combination of the Impf. with the Perf. IK ap- £-
pears sometimes in conditional clauses, to denote an action ^frequenfly
repeated: |ta ^ -S vj '* ** **? Limd * f. "' ' £*j*
1aT^*L TaLl * Jti. W^tf '*> r ^ often as he came to any

er : s ss "^sscrs ™- * : - -■

— 210 — § 268.

usual (§ 277). This combination is met with rather more frequently in
hypothetical clauses like foot ^a*J )J Jla-J "how should he not have been
handsome?" Joseph 38, Note 5 (Ov. 287, 26); loot a£j "ho would liavts
had to love" Ot. 278, 15 (incorrect reading in Joseph li), 3 a ^ o);
loot *oopJ ,o*iX ''why should he have fled?" A no. Dor. 00, 22; ^>
fiwooj r ^xJ "what should I have done?" 2DMG XXIX, 117 v. H85;
loot fjuuj oiap "who would sue?" Ephr. .Nis. p, 64 v. 203; >ts- u«o J) ||(
|»a- ^ot; otJ^ooX loot |h*>^J? t^'^t *? T"^ ^ aJ "' s m) * ^' l( '" '■'"' ''tf' 1 *' '"
one month stronger, in order that the loss of that day might he supplied ?"
Ov. 70, 17, and many like instances. Similarly foo) Jiamj ujj ^p "who
could (can) then he sufficient?" Bplir. (Lamy) 1,175, 19; ^jlj-c^j jho_o *_I*
^-oot "how much more must they he sanctified" ib. paen.\ JLaJ . . . |».a ,_&
loo) "how much more must . . . injure" ih. 205, 1 6.

B. But this comhination is particularly common, in place of the
simple Impf., in dependent clauses after Perfects : J^j )jl&-I . . . aaJkolf
^.aJ^aX JlaaxC^ oooi ^clAajlj auuipxsrat — ware {xy\ "bvvaadai avrovg fitrfrs
dprov (j)aysiv Mark 3, 20; Coot ^Jtkjj ^*j( «*£j "he gave them life that
they might he moved" Moes. II, 104 v. 448 ; ooot v oiiaLX>fcuj KajtoUp
y-jLaVojs "and thou besoughtest that thine offerings might he accepted"
Ephr. IH, 254 I); om^j? loo, ©oVj^? 1*5) go j»j]} "it [Ifysup 'the sab-
hath'] would have had to he given to Adam, to keep it" Aphr. 284, 2;
toot ^aJL^ . . . (Ka*aa v 6c*±& (Jj. . ^jn ^xj oooj ,^=k*io . . . «6io^-w,j
"his clothes they brought, in order that the blessing might 1)0 conveyed
to a large number of them" Ov. 186, 26; J^-ujj »Lr> foot J^o . . . Jlalo
*a a ajKjo foot "nor even .. . . was he alarmed before he fell into sin and
was fettered" Ov. 81, 30 (line 8 has merely j^t); ^^ Pf°); $** «j»fj
op*, loot >6aj? "he would have had to make it gush out for him" Aphr.
314, 4 (where one MS. leaves out loot) (*) ; fyofa^j foot ^Xj JJ y^*J yV
(oot I^jj^j "should he not have been afraid (v. supra A) to reduce thee
to slavery?" Joseph 15, Note 10 [Ov. 277, 2] &c. In all these eases the
simple Impf. would he sufficient; and in fact it is much oftonor mot with,
even in this application, than the construction with |ooj.

(*) This tedious construction is rare with Aphraates.

§§ 269. 270.

PARTICIPLES.

8 269. The Active J'liiiirhih; when it forms the predicate, denotes, A «"»»

_ Participle.

as a Nominal form, first of all a condition, without reference to a de- present.
Bnite time. Such a condition generally represents itself to us as a prvstiut
miudtiim; and in this respect the Active Participle is not distinguishable
from any other predicative adjective: JjI^VJjs "killing (am) I" is exactly
like )il ja.;J "just (am) I". But its close connection with the finite verb
gives the Participle a more verbal character, which is specially shown
by the circumstance that the bare participial form can dispense altogether
with the expression of the 3 rf person as a subject (§ 25!)); it farther
appears for the Impf. over a wide range, and becomes almost a tense,
without, however, losing completely its Nominal character. Although its
chief use is to express the Present, yet it is not a true Present; precisely
where it has the appearance of being so, it might for the most part be
taken as an Adjective proper.

The Active Participle thus denotes very frequently the continuing
as well as the momentary Present, and in this meaning it almost entirely
supplants the Impf. Examples abound: the following may illustrate the
transition from the representation of quite constant conditions to a, state-
ment of what is momentary: 0*4X0 <fc ^aj ly»? ^^.i^'! "&"■' *be lion
by its nature oats flesh (always)" Spic. 7, 14; ' Vyn-m ; JLLI ot«aj jaojo
L & |Luo_a, ckCp^X Ju»>o iLuu "he ruins himself whoever accepts a
bribe, but he who hates to take a bribe lives (rw)" Prov. IB, 27; if^up
^oil m ^ V i oiaaui Vf&NsjKa j<a|i JL^JI !&*■ -oioWj ^ . yw 1,; **^
^.^ •v?' L * e^M° "f° r as soon as liis friends hear the dear name of Rab-
Imlit, lovo for him is inflamed in their hearts and their bosoms glow"
()v. 202, 12; o^&aoA jJI ^aja» JLLot i»J "now also I recoivo his com-
mand" Ov. 172, 5 ; JJuoai . . . ^i> ^^.j "we figure (for you herewith) the
imago" Ov. 159, i &a.

§ 270. The Participle stands plainly in diroct antithesis to tho past """"«
in -IIT^ ^° °! L§*" *" Jl '^"H ot^f ^ "the word of Hod — no
man has come, or comes, to the end of" Aphr. 101 , 17. Tims the Part,
often appears for the Future, whether it be that tho condition is set bo-

— 212' - §271.

lore us in a move lively faslrion as a Present, or that the construction
suffices to relegate the. indefinite statement of the condition to the Future.
The Impf. in these cases might lie more ohvimis, hut the very possibility
of exchanging the two here shows that neither is the Part, a proper
Present, nor the Impf. a genuine Future. < If. H-s^ fa'cp^ y^rh asml
1 Oor. 3, 13; (l^ lyk&aet Hi. (Jffarkl. ioo^ JUX^and vJfaj); Kiajf.
Jj( . uajae oolo ioo^aacs ndi Trdhv oo^dau John 12, 28; tjbo |l ^J^-
ai irti amoidvrj s/f l-ov a/ana John 1 1, 2BS. (I'. loiaj )1 'X); )o->».>o! **=;..&
Av\ Jik, || oolo 'Jerusalem has been destroyed, and will never

again ho inhabited" Aphr. 483, 18 (and frerpieiitly thus with ^^ V) ;

iot^vi jjJj> c*f 5 ^. jjjM "^^? "speedily the righteous judgment of
God overtakes thee" Mart, I, 125 nil; !>fc>A& JUiAj ^aSSis fls^. oi.aAv
Jit^. oi^. "on the completion of six thousand years the -world is dis-
solved" Aphr. 36, 20; JLSI jmjlso ,4.010 "and then I bring up" Aphr.
72, 15; <pU! I|^s JLLJao (Kao ^&J> pSf. Jia-4 <;?oi • ■ • !&■<-" "con-
troversy . . . continues as to how the dead rise and in what body they
will come" (where the Impf. without more ado exchanges with the Part.)
Aphr. 1.54, 1; oi^. Kl! lli> 1 faa^ "to-morrow thou seest him" Kphr.
Ill, XLIII mid. ; ,joot yjfco <&; ^~{ "those who shall como after us"
Jos. St. 80, 2; ^yi\«.o J^£ J^o; ^otXa ^.>A 001 j^L Jhai^.) Jboiaao
'»o !j-ji ^oot^i "and on the establishment of that new world all bad
movements cease, and all oppositions end" (farther participles follow) Spie.
21, 7 &c. With special frequency they occur in eschatological delineations,
as in the 22° d chap, of Aphr. where the Impf. scarcely ovor occurs.

§ 271. Thus also the Part, appears very often in Conditional Hen-
tenses, both in the protasis and the apodosis: ^oKiup ^ai, ^ .a! ^Jo
y&^b. "and if it also pleases us, then we come to an agreement with
thee" Spic. 2, 4; ot^moi. VifAu JJ jb<v. ^> J&p <a-opl. t-^ ,J "for if
thou takest water out of the sea, the loss of it is not noticed" Aphr.
101, 9, and many others. Similarly in quasi-conditional sentences with
^ : t|oli- J£t- ^Lo-^- 1^^°J t-3 "when riches increase, avarice becomes
great" Aphr. 267, 21 (cf. § 265).

In all such cases the Part, is neither an actual Future, nor an
actual Present. So too in sentences like *•!{ po! ^*f vj^d "but perhaps

§ 272. — 213 —

some (ino may say" Jos. St. 5, 13; 42, 15, where the Impf. might stand
quite as well.

8 272. In a considerable number of instances the Part, stands for i» Depmd-

° cntClausea.

a Future action, instead of the Impf., even in dependent clauses: t^j-
ot^p^a pJijkM "till his body rise again" Ov. 208, 21 ; o*aai> {Ll\ l&j^.
"until love for him come" Aphr. 39, 13; jivima ^. y i. np ; lifi. "till they
should offer incense" Giiidi, Sette Donnienti 24 v. 43; Jl^juk. xuojlo
uoij.^mii> ^ ^, V'^n? " iuu ^ ' 10 ministered for many years till he was
taken up" Aphr. 273, 2 ; SJa» t ^- oifca jod !v^?°i<? |iA*sb ^ooA&i. pjx>
,oo*X "ho placed with them as a pledge and hostage Kawadh his son
till ho should send (them) to them" Jos. St. 10, 17 and many like ex-
amples with fi., } J&ji.. — ^jlo ^^-i? t-ILSL^a-oJ? "that we confidently
assume that we shall live" Aphr. 459, 18; ^to! ^i.aj (j> 1'i^ooi J^. o«
— ihJ* "give me hostages that you will not come in pursuit of ine" Jos.
St. 61, 2: tol i^as ool J)} J&JLo KiJ ^-Ajo "dost thou engage, not
again to do . . . ?" Sim. 292 supr.; IJaj.) oiJ^Sai <rfj- rfi^l i-?^ r?
"while he thought that they would restore to him his iniquitous possession"
Mart. I, 127, 11; JAap».ia ^.Vk.»» w4>6( "%^. >»!} oooi ^jaJ=! "who
thought that the enemy would also seine upon Edessa (Orlffld)" Jos. St.
7, 18; (jofX JLiif* JUaj Ulo i^o.it-5 v '!>4^?! JjUffl ai-aUo ai.p Jlo
"and the fools did not know and did not perceive that sorrow and regret
would soon overtake them" Sim. 388 mid.; liiaJ IS— {f - - - ■fill r*% a> )°f?
■*v j^ Jf.~» "for he had come to understand beforehand, what grievous
harm would befall" Ov. 197, 6; ^> . . . Ju^>»» •»(? W-?"J J^°> <w? Mr"?
f*-K# o^tf "the Holy Spirit made choice of him (Noah) that from his
sood even the Messiah should he born" Aphr. 236 %)imu; a-5oW)
lotSis L&. ,4**^! "that thoy had promised to turn again uuto God"
Sim* 321 mid.; Pf* Jl» yM? "*^ <**»* i>» * i »i ? tl«-H» r ia ® ^
ya "let not vanity * issue from thy mouth, lest He withdraw from
thee and cease to dwell in thee" Aphr. 185, 20; ^£ J*j 111, rt J&X?
"lest porhaps he find fault with me when ho comes" Aphr. 340, 19;
uuj IU> tf^.? "whether perchance he saw any ono" — Guidi, Sette Dor-
mieuti 27 v. 158, and many like cases. But still, the Impf. is far more
usual in these cases.

— 214 — § 272.

The Part, stands in like maimer loosely as a consequence of a verb,
especially an Imperative : -Ic^ ^U, JK^, anas.*. ai/>ere to vaidia Bp-
Xiatai apd( /xs Mark 1(1, 14: Matt. 19, 14; .oop^i <.^aj5 !I\i*> j>a^»
afore Toif viicpovg ddipai rout; savrSni inkpot^ Matt. 8, 22, anil frequently
so in the N. T. with jjoaj., qjjo=>jl; VJj -\*- "let liim go" Him.
283 inf.; -jotf^ib (S. ,;« ) ;dj03 Kiksuaov da<j>aXiaCl-/jvai Matt. 27, 04;
^V J^jj »o.aa "bid" tliem kill me" Mart. I, 25 mid.; c&- ofj. ?iuia
"bid liim sit down" John van Telia (Kleyn) 51, 3; usai- i^J.» "..ujl !■»{
(Lot;-. hItts r$ aoeAc/xji /*ou nepiaaad-ai nsr s/j.ov ttjv Kkqpovoitlcai Luke
12, 13; w^oJjs >-?»*> Q*"; v of " ca " Samson, tliat he may dance be-
fore ns" .Judges 16, 25; ^t-^-=> n\ ' "*'' J°°-° " rise > tllat we '""^ a ° fortu
and pass the night" Jos. St. 29, 11 ; ^a.£ -oiojf* !^ofs»? i?o^,£ r^
ft !*- "into one of the pits which are in the desert cast ye him, that
he may sink in the mire" Joseph 29, 7 (Ov. 283, 11); ^«aa)j -oiofaoj
ijLio !|| "take him to his father, that ho may come and see" Joseph
280, 13 &e. With other forms of the verb : JuaaJ ot-ia^ jl "suffer her
not to go out" Sir. 42, 11 ; ^j-itoo li,^ .oaaj4 {1} "that it (f.) do
not allow the body to be corrupted" Philox. 524, 11; ^a'f )%JJ u3q^.*j
"permit (subj.) the wheat to increase" Ov. 192, 20; <££■}{ <aj{ k->».
"I allowed them to go" Sim. 328, 4; ^ ^X (S. I^-J) ^kj
i&mim aiirolg tjiaysft Mark 8, 37. (Of. supra § 267).

Farther, notice >SJLd JU&Jho j^Aif JUlttJ "the physician, who was skil-
ful in healing pains" Anc. Doe. 90, 23; Ja^kX JJ=-? M It 1 ** '■ % ^i D
"grace will not accept the penitent..." Aphr. 153, 15 (of. 187, 10);
oo> f r *.so "is accustomed to give" Philox. 473, 23, and frequently thus
with t-vso; <^- ^a» ^X-soi? "who constantly injure us" Statuti dolla
Souola di Nisibi 13, 8, and frequently so with ^jol. With special fre-
quency, however, the Part, is found with "can" and "begin" ; ^u^«io Jl
,~^ (^ od ouvara/ 6 vidg itomv John 5, 19 (0. t ^%^S ) ; i$^- vun a 'ft
"can constrain" Aphr. 491, 13; ^v^a.io ^^ {I "(they) cannot bring to
nought" Ov. 62, 21; «^^»J<> °-)^ yptavro riXksw Matt. 12, 1; o^*
,.;jL^"they began circumcising" Aphr. 210, 4; ^5^ a=5»j "thoy coni-
menced Hoeing away" Sim. 342 mid. &c. Oomparo also i^axo o-jJf.
v 6oi\. .*.Jb>IV*> J^-jSo TJp^avro oi ypanixaret; km o! i'apiaafoi isivSS;

Part, in

rteiiotinK

§§ 273—275. — 216 —

tofystv, Luke 11, 53 P., for which 0. S. lutTO '^ loot jtjctoo «►» (cf.
§ 277 Ooncl.).

In like manner the I J art. aripears, connected however with o, in
j^ $ .™,5 /r\Art ojo-o (jfot "show mo this, and thou X shall he con-
vinced hy thee" Spic. 13, (i ; <^lo ,ooitaX lh^x> <S> joi ^.Ji» "let
one go to thorn from the (loud, and they repent [= then they would
repent]" Aphr. 384, 3; Jkaia? i-a^lo voovj^? ^^?^4» °i-*>!? ^4^
L&i.£k.&o ,001.^^3 K»3 "because they had said that their bodies
should he divided and that the oueen should pass through the midst of
their bodies, and then she would become well" Mart. I, 57 mid.

S 273. Exceptionally the Part, denotes something on the point of u.« of
happening in the past, in sentences like IJl»; Jtoj L£*j j-o "when tlie
time came for him to die" Aphr. 312, 6; JA-^a ?im» ^^f»? ^M! ]
-oia^aoi "they led him away to where he was to suffer punishment" J" 1 '"^
Mart. I, 246 mid. (a like case ib. inf.); Jx-oSj ii.iL <*= wKsKi? Lie- ii.«.«po.t.
iooi "the day on, which the door was to be opened was still distant"
Sim. 363 mid. But the addition, of iooi is more usual in this case (§ 277).

8 274. Narration scarcely ever employs the Active Participle (as Ht.to*»i
historical present) except in the case ot po(; but this jjp( d , (£*>£, ^po(, or
,j»(, "he or she said"; "they (m. or f.) said" — is very common. Tims
-• t »io ooi-o mi CMOlcpld-ivreg slnav Matt. 21, 27, and frequently; ac-
cordingly the form fsp'? tf*- common in the N. T. must properly have
been i^p!° 8-»*- Something different is the Part, in lively description of
dreams, as in )!? IjLi |i n » v i -. Jil y^of tf U^-? oi^aa • • • l-t»l rf>°
il^-i "and after I had said . . . about midnight while I am sleeping in
the tent, I see a man" Sim. 328 supr., and thus frequently.

S 275. In brief subordinate clauses the Part, often stands (like Oontumpor-

.... . . . ary Oondl-

adjeotives of another kind), to denote a. contemporary condition in the ,
past, especially after r s: kajifcoib jo . . . JSi. anoKpiSet; . . . ayauaierw '
Luke 13, 14; r$» • ■ • <;k-"^ r° KaTa^aivovTui' avr&v . . ■ ivsrsiXaro Matt.
17,9; k£3 +& iJJiX. ot^aj pi*, -uaf "he sacrificed himself to the demons,
to wit, when he descended" Ov. 160, 15; i£u Jl.o-oV= pLjs *£» "and
while he stood in the temple, he saw" Ot. 183 ult.; ^&i !La*> "^jjjq^.
Ifi fj> "to meet death he ran with joy" Anc. Doc. 90 para.; oij>Jl{

- , J-ast.

Modal
Colouring.

_ 216 — §§ 276. 277.

_.po! r" ■ ■ • tJ& Jip-SisJ • • " ii*5 "accusations were brought against a
m*an, while they said" Mart. I, 1.23 ; ^&»» ooi jSj. "while he yet spake"
Gen. 29, II; Matt. 26, 47, and frequently thus, after ,^ "while yet".
Cf. oki) . . . — o. - ^. IU> sih Aeii'K . . . /caS^jusmv Mark 2,14; voojl ,j>o
\Z .-> . Jyjkib} "and when he heard that the epistles were read"
Sim. 269 ad inf. (Cud. Loud. '» '» *& <*aojto) ; .ojluj? . . . ooot ^.j-^J o^jj.
— oioXxJ >»t¥ vi "' ueT began to watch that they might see if he
moved his feet" Sim. 275, 15 &c. Notice the contrast with the I 'erf. in
(Lfo y^*>l? oi»UX LjL, fj> "wlien she saw that Jehu had become king,
and was coming" Aplir. 273, 9. In all these instances ioot might have
been added to the Part.

§ 276. In several of the foregoing examples a beginning has been
made in employing the Part, in room of the Impf., even in optative and
other moods. Compare on this point rare cases like ^j . jrrwi ffpoffSoraS/ttv
"have we to look for?" Matt. 11, 3; Luke 7, 19, 20; 1JL& |ub ^ "why
is he to die?" 1 Sam. 20, 32 ; to! LJL& ,oiaX "why wilt. thou die?" Guidi,
Sette Dorm. 22 v. 142 — 28 v. 168 ; ^ ^fi-i t, JLa-j y.V "how are they
to forgive you?" Aphr. 37, 12. Of course it is at the most merely the
first approaches to a modal use of the Part, that can be discovered in
these instances: modabty itself still remains entirely with the Impf.
Active § 277. The Part., properly expressing only a condition, is dis-

vdS"l««. tinctly referred to the past by subjoining Jooi or, though not so frequently,
by placing that word before it. Thus there arises a form expressing
continuance or repetition in past time; loot ^ is nearly = fatiebat.
The loot does not require to be repeated, when it refers to several par-
ticiples : it may be altogether omitted, when the connection clearly attests
the sphere of the past (§ 275). Farther, even the simple tense of past
time, viz the Perfect, may appear instead of this combination, whenever
the impression of continuance or repetition is not specially conveyed.
Thus, in particular, we have almost invariably loot alone, instead of |oii
!oot as erat. The combination is vory common: ooot ^A) nin irpoafyspov
Mark 10, 13 (8. u^o); 0501 ^iaj» iwlirpaaicw Acts 2, 45 (and in v. 47,
farther instances) ; 0001 ^JA <*$& JSj)ai. "auxllium ab eo royabant"
Mart. I, 122, 10; ^.Snj 1^,00* "ediibant euim" Sim. 274 mid.; jjioipo

§ 277.

217 —

pjLmo IjoJ loot "used to light a lire and place on it (incense)" Sim. 269, 9;
ffyA oo'ot ^a^i ooot oa^-! *f"i ok**? M>*? ooS| <?*** t5>
"while they were bringing out the first who had died,— aa soon as they
turned round, they found others" .Tom. St. 37, 17. Notice that the Part,
here, along with fr, takes fa, though the simple Part, would have heen
sufficient (§ 275).' "it is somewhat different when a condition is entered
upon suddenly: «W . . . J&oiJ • • • «**• 1*'* "»"*» ■'•■** t* " wmle
he was still seeking to persuade him, the gold was (suddenly) sent" .Jos.
St. 35, 9. Similarly £ ioo, ~aai ,£ Ji-6.^. ^&x>k& o-W t?°
JJioJa loo, ^a^o !^i.j» "and when they began to be put to death,
a magician came (just then) from the city and passed by on the road"
Mart. I, 94, 14.— The notion of continuance is more strongly im-
pressed 'in ^vi >*}.*Sw W^S tvft ^> «** <**>** tf S o, 5 " !H,d
they kept wrangling with him from daybreak till the ninth hour" Jos.

St. 58, 20.

This combination farther denotes something on the point of hap-
pening in the past (without loo. § 273): ooo, «f*£o*i =*S>? -<* IV»°^
"to the place where they were to be put to death" Mart. I, 91, 3; 99, 1;
Jfrvw., (jSjjuuo of*. I45i ioetl Jio- V$* tf " wll<m tlle *"* an ' iTe(1 m
whicli the departure of the king was to take place" Mart. I, 106 inf.;
loo, IJLij e»tt»a&> of%- NsW ^^l " vb * he B ri6T ° a '" Us Bi ° bieSS
that he was to die" Aphr. 468, 14 &C—IV *4sf^ * 4 * ^^ ""^
145, "he wanted to put Persia to shame and build up Singara" Ov. 9,25,
It stands also hypothetical^ in JH»i lis, *«^ ^o*^ "why should
the physician flee?" Anc. Doc. 90, 23 (close beside lis, j>6P4 § 268 A);
Ds-oo, Jb\ "vellem" Mart, I, 167 mid.; k-o* j^ -o.X "would that
thou didst reverence" Mart. I, 26 inf.; 145, .aa? Jio^J M<j "and what
means of conveyance would be sufficient?" Moos. II, 112 v. 550; ^1
lLoSi !%i. )!S% "how could I have undone the loads?" Joseph 229, 14
(Ov. 313, 24); 146, v^a»& )j "could he not have &c?" Sim. 374, 7; y~l
oovX 145, Jf+ fajspt^l "as if he wore carrying them (his wars) on,
m their interest" Jos. St. 9, 18; o^j lis, %»*& H*Jf*» "for thereby
his will would be fulfilled" Spio. 1, 9, and like cases. Thus too in clauses
with o^. "if (§ 375 A).

218

§278.

Similarly also toot t*^»po ^-^ J(/° 1&& V^-af "perhaps lie will be
ashamed and will not put to death, and lie (another subject) will take
away" Mart. I, 124 mid,, where at first the loot is wanting.

This combination stands in a dependent position, — amongst other
instances,— in: foot ljb»? ^oo+ X o — .otoij^ ooot ^&yp ^a "while all were
grieved for him, that he was dying" Anc. Doe. 20, 14=Addai 48, 8;
ooot ^*x*ja^o JJ» U=»d^ ojL»5 "the holy men made a sign that they would
not offer sacrifice" Ano. Doe. 103, 20 (line 25 has merely yAaft) Jjjj).
And thus it sometimes stands, even when the dependence is not given
expression to hy ? (§ 272): o+4» ooot ^*iA ,a-iot Q-j*o "and they com-
menced to heg of him" Luke 24, 29 0. S. and even ^j~^.J ooot ^la.»M JJ
ooot "they were not able to keep" Aphr. 1 5, 2 ; ooot ^^^» ooot ^Pj-*>?
o^- "which they had been accustomed to worship" Aphr. 312, 2.1 ; Jl.a-fo
o£^ loot iO&oo toot Jjio JU t-? «h^- ^o) ^£k»9 toot Ijio "and how could he
have cultivated it when he could not summon up the needful strength"
[lit. "when he could not suffice for it"] Ephr. I, 23 D &c. Here the
tedious toot beside the dependent verb might throughout have been dis-
pensed with.

§ 278. A. The Passive Participle expresses the completion of an
action, and stands as a predicate instead of the Perfect, just as the
Active Participle does instead of the Imperfect: t^A-o ytypairrca Matt.
2, 5, and often in the N. T. and elsewhere; ,oo£>* Jj L* o V| ti.o*JL* wo*a
JoVSs ^> "in that liberty which has been given them by tJod (= J^o*-l{)"
Spic. 13, 17; <-.;.. Q.N. Jao~£ )■*-*♦-*> tk-Iaa^j <=*p^? oi^*!-^?^ ^*a&
'a.o J^*"V ttlo JL..&JL {IS^.ojo "but now, through the coming of the son
of the blessed Mary, the thorns have been uprooted, the sweat removed, the
fig-tree cursed &c." Aphr. 113, 19; ^aSk-v^a? jJo, . . . ^*^^t )i» ^aJtisAaj Jj|j
"that these words have not been sealed' and are not to be sealed" Aphr.
101, B (where the difference between the Passive Participle and the Re-
flexive Participle with the effect of the Active very clearly appears), and
so in many instances. But what we have in all such cases is the true,
result-announcing Perfect: — as a narrative tense this participle hardly
ever appears.

§279. - 219 -

B. .With to there ia thus formed a, kind of Pluperfect, i. e. the
statement of a result reached already ill the Past: ooS> ^»~&u " had 1,cen
got ready" Ov. 172, 22 ; JLj?^-? -A LoS J&Ki.i° i-^J "for tlris testament
liad not been completed [Tit. 'signed and scaled'] Aphr. 28, 8; Ij^*l£ o»a;
!Ko>a= too, "in which the blessing had been hidden" Aphr. 464, IS Ac.

§ 279. A. A favourite mode of employing this Port, includes mention wim\..
of the agent introduced by^(§ 247): ^ r 5 ^ "< llas keen > dolle ^
mc" — "I have done". A logical object may stand with it as gram-
matical subject; but such may also lie wanting, so that the form of the
verb maybe impersonal; thus it may be formed even with intransitive
verbs: uX luiu )} j^^avBpa ov ymioitu Luke 1, 34; Jika y^- «jV>
"hast thou read the books?" Spic. 13, 8; y > -V <?*St">S " wllom 1 liave
prepared for thee"- Mart. I, 182 inf.; lj.Mwj ojSj. v oj£ <j= !'!>£ V J
IJaj ^ojj (*J !■©»!<> *#>? )Ja? •**> tt 1 ^ * &2C S ! >?o^° «V <;!-?=
^it "if by him the mountains have been searched, the rivers plundered,
and* the depths of the seas fathomed, and he lias examined and searched
the recesses of the thickets and of the caves" Ephr. II, 319 D (where
the Active form continues what was expressed by the Passive); )LjJ
' ,-V vs*^*! "as we have heard" Spic. 16, 22; |i$£^» pfo ^ )«~* V.
"it has not been stood by me (= I have not stood) before great ones"
Kalilag and Damnag 88, 8; o£j- ^B "lie stood" Hoffmann, Miirtyrer

108, 973; ^.V >^- , » iD " ] have W!llked " S l rio - 43 ' 7 > ^<3? ! J^s? ^?

, ,n. "and I have had no experience of domestic ties" [lit. 'with
marriage. I have not met'] Ephr. (Lamy) II, 599, 8; Jl*^ J«A4ftV ^
-V ioo) (( "we have been engaged .in no treacherous dealing with the
Romans" ('it has been engaged by us in no treachery with &o.') Mart.
I, 152, 9; ^ loot !>Hs 1%-fct " tvue antl straightforward have I been"
Mart. I, 27, 5. Of. the troublesome sentence yea 6£j- low? )£-! <.&
;k f --^. £, -A ltolu-)j $yi liX )i ivi-. > "from those quarters
where the people had contracted any of that relationship with one
another which comes from baptism" (or "where, for the people, that
relationship Ac. had come into existence" or, still more literally, "where,
for the people, existence had been assumed by that relationship &c.")
Jac. Edess. in Lagarde's lieliq. Juris Syr. 114, 14 &c.

— 220 — § 280.

B. With toot we get also a Pluperfect of this typo : ooot ^4=1}
]Lj&¥aacsi "which had been built by the Persians" Jos. St. 17, 9; **jj Ji
^ot ©£*_ toot J^ujt. of . . . ov^w loo) Ui-o "had lie thou not read . . . or
had lie not heard,— this?" Mart. 1, 127 mp:; 0501 ^. v .vi.. i=Ko W^ if
oi*. "for the books had not been heard of by him" Sim. 269, &c.

,. § 280. Several participles of the form ^^^ arc used with an

Active signification. This arises partly from the circumstance that tile
verbs concerned may be doubly transitive, and partly from the inilucnee
of the analogy of forms allied in meaning. Thus ^£ "laden with" —
"bearing"; i-jx., ^o "thrown round (cinnimdatim)" — "encircling ((•//■-
mimlans)"; j*fl{, yj^X, *JU> "holding"; , - i. mi "possessing"; )a-J»
"having placed"; "Vi*. "carrying"; i^S» "dragging away"; j^J "leading
away"; m~ "pulling away"; .n.5v "holding embraced"; V-^> "remem-
bering" (according to others S-ij); ■■■ ^ N > "clothed, with" = "wearing";
\ -fr-l "girt with"; ^.JLm "shod with"; y.wm "leant upon (X)" —
"supporting", and some others. The pretty frequent UjoC 1 ) "having ac-
quired" — "possessing" (as contrasted with |io "acquiring") deserves
particular attention. Some examples: Jkw*(j J^ijji 6**^. ^ . N ■ n « "the
righteous support the earth" Aphr. 457, 8; J&p -SSi v i . s^ ,.$ Jjjj "but
women carried water" Jo's. St. 60, 14; Juo-Jlu isV&t i^^ro-ir 58 1 °^9
J&\^\ oi^. "and had not the protection of God embraced the world"
Jos. St. 4, 14; (Oo^ <;h~^ f3 oil) J&J-oo "blind people who came, as
they led them" Sim. 346 ad inf.; !o6) jlo [at lej&4t^ "candour [literally
"openness of countenance"] he possessed" Anc. Doc. 90, 25; (ooi t-Lrbj
J£*^? f^-jov^ "he was girt with a girdle of a skin" Mark 1, 6, of.
Rev. 15, 6. Several examples are found in Pliilox., Bpist. (Ghlidi) fol.
28 J} &c. Of. also Jj^ip >■ iio, pi. JU^p ^» fi ■ T *> "having gathered water" —
"dropsical" Luke 14, 2 ; Laud IV, 87, 9 ; G ooponici 95, 2 &c.

( l ) Just as this word is in a certain sense an Active Part. Perf., so also may
the like be predicated of the Verbal Adjectives dealt with in § 118, e. ff. -U "come",
4^Ja& "dead, died"; «x»^ "having seated oneself" = "sitting" &o. Similarly it*
"dwelling", Part. Perf. of l^«. "to settle".

§§281. 282. _ 221 —

Those words, however, may also lie used in a true passive sense,
fl. //. Vai "taken"; v-*«^"] )u lled, torn. away".

PARTICIPLES USED AS NOUNS.

§.2HI. We disregard in tliis place such participles (Peal act.) as a» j>u««
havo become nouns completely, like Ju2n>; "friend , \i±.] "sliepherd , tl „,.
l^t>V al "' ^«-^- ^ ohcov/ievri, \fya-Ji "a pillar", (V-'ir? " a bird", !V*f
"herb", ils^wo rd Trpsyrov &e.

§ 2H2. A. The Part. Act. of the Peal may he employed in the A °'- p «-

tioiple of

( 'onsl.r. Mate and with possessive suffixes, while the object is set in tn« r.u.
gomtivu connection, contrived sometimes by means 01 A: — prepositions „ se „ (i ,
loo may at limes come after the Part, in the Gonstr. St. (§ 206): o$* »'"■•*"'•
J m .!r> "he who concludes the covenants" Aphr. 214, 14; Jbpoaai )o^jd
"lawgiver" frequently; '■■*■ ""v ^oi, "he who eats my bread" Ps. 41, 9;
JULS !£a& IJLi o! "O thou who diest an evil death!" Mart. I, 180 inf.;
)L? K*=l lt°JJ"? "J ustioe which demanded doom" Aphr. 462, 5; t^i
ik..' i m "she who gave hateful advice" Aphr. 110, 10; yi* >^u| "those
who fear thy name" Ps. 61, 5; )9imj ojjjj'j "lovers of money, — covetous
persons" Ov. 190, 2; vjut I^ma >^ii( "are flesh-eaters" Spic. 7, IB;
^! )Am> t^jij "are grass-eaters (f.)" j&id 16. — JUufeo^. p£>\ ijilhS-
Xpmrog frenuently; lot^Jji Wuj ^a lmX . "thy God-loving holiness"
Jos. St. 1, 1 ; !kj*9=> "jV* "trumpeters" Aphr. 260, 4 — iM*x> o-vb
Aphr. 147, 13; Jifajj -$^ "who load to destruction" Aphr. 271 ult.;
JJa^JLy uN«i\ "those who rush into the fight" Aphr. 149, 18 ; o-ii
)lt.-s. (Ji ^ "who build an edifice upon tho sand" Aphr. 285, 9 (where
the governing power continues notwithstanding the construct state, the
object being placed at the end); J&.i viS . p$S£>M» "^! "who love
Christ in everything" John van Telia (Klcyn) 3, 8; 11, 9 (same form).—
-)~~ t "his rider" Ps. 33, 17; %-otnN . .{ "those who fear him" frequently;
w-jUi "those who see tbeo" Is. 14, 16 &c. The connection with suffixes
is loss frequent, it is true, and it is coiihnod moro to special words.

Only a few of those Active Participles can farther be used attri-
butively, a. g. !&■»>.% (L£o* "an erring Bpirit" Is. 19, 14; l^s{ °ot l*o->

— 222 — § 283.

"is a devouring fire" Dent. 4, 24; 'J, 3; Hel>. 12, 29; !^ f ^ !jo-> "a bunt-
ing fire" Daniel 3, several times ; >%%o IfvAs' Iv>k3 "idols fashioned and
false" Anc. Doe. 42, 22. Tims too UAA., f, IVlS-*- "foolish"; loaji
"sufficient", "dexterous"; Jl *\ ■ w "fitting".^)

B. For all those uses in wliieli the Participle but rarely appears,
the Nomen lu/enth comes in: o-aooi-s "thy redeemer" Ps. 35, 3; oijoji-
"his helper" Ps. 10, 14; e»-£d\i. "he who sent him" Aphr. 289, 8;
^n pfe^, n njj ai»>l "nourish ye that (f.) which devours you"( 2 ) Mart. I,
194, 10 &e. Thus in particular, as independent substantive, and as at-
tribute v|d-^J "watchman" &c.

§ 283. The Part. Act. of the other Verbal classes [Conjugations]
is also employed in the constr. st. On the other hand it seldom appears
with possessive suffixes: ^s rV ^? "be who produces everything" Eplir.
(Lamy) II, 247, 3; oils^a^ ^%-j*> "who makes his cursing ineffective"
Aphr. 236 ult.; i^o^j >=>iraso "who offers prayers" Aphr. 66, 17; y &\'h
|LaA»L Ka.^lfio "salt, that breaks up rottenness" Aphr. 485, 16;
igJ^kN-i ny> l^itop "the shield which intercepts the arrows" Aphr. 44, 2;
Jbafftg fc^iLaao "those who accept money" Aphr. 260, 16; JS|Iai «-aJx»
"who exhibit a profit" Aphr. 287, 2; ^.cV^=? lj-itiiYi . . . Jljj "women,
who subjugate their husbands" Spic. 15, 19; i. rc^v* JIva* v > fajj
^oot_ws,s^j lLaja.mj JLU.jd i[A\oi KoiL J-^Li^ "weak passions that
yet subdue heroes under the hard yoke of the need of them" Ov.
182, 18. — K,)'-i,,5t» ^ooiyisS vQ&Zsa "who urge on their people
hurriedly" Mart. I, 16, 6; v eotN.,»'<^ u*Koio!> "those who light vigor-
ously (with all their might)" Moes. II, 75, 5; Mart. 1, 159 mid.; i.iibj.fcoi>
fyaij^» "who are strong in pride" Aphr. 430 ult. (of. Is. 13, 3); JLluuSi
Ji'lLi^ , .u.iv) "oil, that revives the wearied ones" .Eplir. (Lamy) II,
179, 4 &c.

( l ) Notice that AbstraotNounB in llo, Relative Adjectives in ^ — and Adverbs
in V-Jl— can be formed from those Active Participles only which are also used as
Adj. or Subst.

( a ) Or ^i.kiA.JI without a (§ 146 P.)?

§ 284. — 223 —

A very few of these Participles occur, besides, as attributive ad-
jectives, and as substantives. Thus J^ja^ JJ'1*> "splendid vestments"
Ano. .Doc. 42, 9, and elsewhere JLi^pu?; frequently |i.*x-&*> "faithful"
(of which the fern. emph. state, it-i^&io shows by the a, that it is no
longer regarded as a Part. Act; so is it too with ! W~*> "a wet muse",
and others which have become substantives).

Bern. Quite unique is the instance -;« !^j'f^» lk&ia£ ifc^oka
pi. ^i y> "the wise maidens gladdened thee daily" Ephr. Ill, 344 E,
where in spite of the emph. at.,— in itself singular indeed in more
respects than one, the power of governing remains. In prose it could be
nothing but ^Xoo.

B. The Nomen cu/entis is, on the other hand, very extensively em-
ployed here: H*\*> "the restorer" often; !$».? |La=jo "founders of
churches" Jul. 125, 27 (immediately beside ^xlsjoLj! <Jf£na»s "and
upholders of orthodoxy"); tysii&jnj;*? 6>1A-j}» "upholder of Chris-
tianity" ibid. 126, 5; wfri«"° "my helpers" Ps. 3, 3; ^Uxoi^o "who
nourishes us" Ps. 84, 12; ,oom^&*> "he who destroys them" Aphr.
452, 13; oi^a^3.^.» "she who destroys him" Aphr. 47, 1; ,o-a-Kpt»
tw ■fffwixbw ii/uk Heb. 13, 7 ; ot^^aioK** "those who are obedient
to her" Aphr. 47, 2 &c. But the Nomen Agentis does not take the
Constr. St. before the substantive expressing the object. C) The Nomina
Ag. of reflexives of passive meaning are on the whole used rather
as adjectives in the sense of "capable of . . . ".

§ 284. Passive Participles are employed both as substantives and J"*^
adjectives. They may be followed by a genitive as Subject or Object,
and may even stand in the Construct State before prepositions; -Siai^a
-oia&k . . . J; i&t "they that be blessed of the Lord . . . they that be cursed
of him" Ps. 37, 22; )i^> ^a^Sap "expert in war" Cantic. 3, 8^ ^
!1 v4^sj' " who are weaned from pleasures" Aphr. 260, 8; &«£ ui>i»
Ji&^Ja -^=p»? "tbey who are girded about with byssus and adorned

(•) In Muijillj "&***•* 'tr*' "***" "founders of churches and upholders
of orthodoxy" Jul. 125, 27 and "lui4-*»«=S +l**V "upholder of Ohri«tianity" ibid.
126, 5, the Oonstr. St. of the nomen agtniw \» plainly avoided.

_ 224 — §§ 285. 286.

with purple" Aphr. 261 , 9 ; J%> ^> -fXaip "those who are born of water"
Aphr. 287, 16 Ac. Farther (oiSs? wgSap "taught of God" Aphr. 293, 17;
IkSpo bl» "garments adorned" Anc. Doc. 42, 9; ilSva-ojo ot&oi^i "a
prayer accepted (heard)" Aphr. 454, 19 &c. Other constructions, how-
ever, arc preferred to this employment of the Pass. Part, as a Noun,
except in the case of a few words.

Some of the participles mentioned in § 280 are of cowmen) occur-
rence in the Conatr. St., e. <j. \-yi ^ia*. "those, who bear the yoke"
Aphr. 260, 20; fc^oj -p^i ''those who hold the keys" Aphr. 260, 7 cStc.

IMPERATIVE.

imperii™. § 285. The Imperative mood cannot ho used with a negative:

^.o^d "kill", hut ^<i&4 (J "do not kill" (§ 266).

We have one instance of a dependent Impt. in — Joo ^jj ^&»
"for (properly "because") know and see" Mart. I, 160, 20. But this is
at bottom an anacoluthon.

INFINITIVE.

ininitiYt. § 286. Where the Inf. is not the Object Absolute (on this point

v. § 295), it must always have V. before it. This proposition gives to
the Inf. the sense of direction, of purpose, &c. ; a^ NviviS oooi aaplo
yplaVTO XaXslv Acts 2, 4; aooi ^l\ of^ynS yj "whilo thoy (f.) came
to pray" Aphr. 112, 12; IfaaKi o),**^. U ,m*t? t^o "and wlulo the
sword receives the command to destroy" Apia'. 45], 4; ^crfi. (Jsm lj
omJ^ais^X "they did not fail to mako provision for themselves" Aphr.
452, 9 ; ^■^ s v Jo» ^sj. IAJLcdj "which is in want of water to drink"
Aphr. 199, 1; i — --y^ ••*'^ i - "Aixpositus ail faciendum", "faciwus";
ofjbt^A. . . . !46( uajjuo "he cried out ... , that they should abstain"
Ov. 179, 17; A)I ~*<~«m.n . ^.5) J-oi, "it is worthy to he received" Aphr.
103, 1 &c. This signification gradually passes over to that of tho Object;
thus after verbs like "to wish", "to bo able" &o. : otfubepi. a^a fyjroQims
airbv xparyjaai Matt. 21 , 46 P. S. (C. e*JOji.)j? oooi <u*a) ; a y* |)
outii^.^ "cannot bo healed" Aphr. 136, 4 (hue 8 Jjyll^j? mj i ii jl);

8 286. _ 225 —

•*>fibA. JS? ijJo JS_a-J "how can I know?" Ov. 163, 2; "Vjijk«s>. <ok-v?.
"yo have neglected to go" Jul. 123, 5; )i.->viN - . . -j^ "began to build"
Jos. St. 24, 11 ; n) '^~^ v >^ol .^fTtof JUo "and no longer continued to
mint hitr" Jul. 98, 11 &o.

Thus too the Inf. witb "^-, as a land of epexegesis which specifies
direction, represents even the Subject. Compare ot^. plo "*^ai±.
o-aLo^ooX ^w^jiruJU "it still remains appointed for Israel, to be brought
together" A phi-. 359, 3; 307, 5 ( v n«i;Kj; <6o^ )oUr> i_^ v ! 367, 11);
ci £1 ^ h^a^. "^t^ -)j ^ot ot^. K^^ "it is not possible for Israel yet to
lie brought together" Aphr. 359, 7 ; ^jvol ))o ui. )!*> ti us IsT momv
Acts' 16, 30, and many other instances. Of. § 254 C.

In all these cases the Inf. with ^ might bo replaced by the finite
verb witli j: Compare, besides the examples already given, ..»,i,a« vi
i . * « ; (jjJ?o !^V-^f. tioi»^o myjinNo p f » | vi \ "he is able to love,
and to bless, and to speak the truth, and to* pray for what is good"
[last member of sentence being in finite form] Spic. 5, 11 &c. There
are even rare instances of a blending of both constructions, namely
j and thereafter 'v. with tire Inf.: .IfJLo ,j^.oi ^>? loC^ " ' J ' y ;
J*ia ^^ ^^S qti "bvvarou 6 (Jed; sk t(ov X/6W toutcw eysipat riwa
Uiko 3, 8 0. (where P. merely has ninninN , and S. </*+*} . . . f);
•|A~|\ ^J w r^\ li.f'^a..! ^^i vi "tf tuou desirest to learn
these things with dihgence" Spic. 48, 16 ; ILiipjAa Jto^j !Joi> laot u^ssj
[■j^^N "ho dared to do this on the first day of the week" Apost.
Apoor. 197 ult.C)

Of necessity J must be prefixed to X when the Inf. depends on a
farther preposition (almost always ^>; cf. § a49 B): y^ uinN ; £ "-"x^i
"deliver me from seeing thee" Mart. 1, 1 26, 10; t^sKi.? ^> *8 "oy^? "that
one is saved from observing" Aphr, 22, 18; ^ !&.=».£ «■-;•»■ v jS. o« > «^i.!
lluLji A ots»}Ju£a*f ^> "it is easier to do good than to keep from evil"
Spic. 6, 10 &c. More frequent is the form oiiijo£>.? «<S| ^ . . . lift JU. |J
"ho did not cease to teach" Kphr. Ill, XXXIII ult. (or the completely

(•) However little I am disposed to guarantees tlio integrity of tie individual
passages, the instanoes are so numerous, that the idiom must he recognised.

— 226 — § 287.

verbal form, oo-l^ J|» ^» "^Sao "too weak to keep from stealing
Spic. 5, 7).

With K.J or !oo* the Inf. denotes an Obligation, Necessity, or even
Ability: poJ*£=»- i»\. K.| "I have to say" frequently; A ojivifv |oc*j ^!
.■Ay i;&]> lifl fis auv ml awoSavslv Matt. 26, 35 ; .a^Jbaik. fc-l "must be
learned" Ov. 63, 24; t*>Jba^ Ks*. "cannot be told" Aphr. 496, 3 &c.
Sometimes the Inf. with X is sufficient of itself in such cases : IjcV^
o^a of&jtaoX ev TouTCf ydp to fravixcusrw sanv John 9, 30 S. (P. IfcVn
' y.\ -^oA ooi) ; t-^tto«>j Ma ot&jkvi'v )} "we need not wonder at
him who is caught" Prov. 6, 30; Jtim po» oti;Wi.o ^ j&Wi* "but
we must feel amazement and wonder at this old man" Jul. 4, 10 (and
frequently thus); /opa^o^aoi Jfj^aX. "we must therefore rejoice and
exult" Jul. 9, 7 ; ,6o(S»- afjt,«-fl\ J&\ *. y! "they must dissolve like a
dream" Spic. 44, 1 ; otioj j»j ..-> m yi \ ^ "it is impossible to reach its
height" Ephr. (Lamy) I,' 645, Str. 15; (i^c'oa okaaaX ^ Jaiu> "how
many commands have I to write" ibid. 303, 11 &c.

In very rare instances a Subject is attached to the Inf. with X, as
if it were a finite, verb, as in v?"*-?*! k^ <*= o ^foN "that the
priests may wash their hands therein" 2 Ohr. 4, 6; of. (oop^X IjAjo
^ •v cSt, )J JlaJ Ij-J JLi^^a "and that this should happen publicly, fate
did not grant him" Ov. 201, 2; ^.5) J ftm^ y^. j^oujX Iti "that the
brethren should do homage to thee is a hard thing" Joseph 9, 6.

Mem. On the Inf. with Obj. v. § 293 sq. ; on the Inf. Abs. § 295 sqq.

0. GOVERNMENT OE THE VEEB.

objoot ei- § 287. Syriac ha,s no thorough-going mode of designating the Ob-

th!i" ioifoiject. (') It is only in the case of the Personal Pronoun that the languago
pronoun. p 0SS0SB(JS unequivocal Object-forms, and those are affixed to the finite

(*) For the Hebrew nH, the Targum has the corresponding flj. This anoient
Objective mark fc^ is found in the 0. T. about a dozen times. That the word was
still known in some measure to the Edessans at the time of translating the O. T.
we may conclude, from its employment in the ancient Gnostic (Bardesanic?) Hymn

§ 288. — 227 —

Yerl). Occasionally, however, this method of indicating the Object is
exchanged for another, — that, namely, which is contrived by .X, followed
by the Pron. Suff. — It is true it is a loss exact method than the former,
because it serves other purposes besides. Examples: Js*. a±aj "lie may
torture us" Joseph 204, 4 [Ov. 300, 12]; ^ "^-° "has received us"
ibid. 194, 13 [Ov. 295, 15]; ,6o^ k^a) "I have conquered them" Mart.
II, 233, 1 (Jac. Sar.) ; i^i. a^ "have escaped (3 pi.) mo" Ephr. Nis.
p. 62 v. 83 &c. "We have the form set before the verb in .oli-Oj ^>-o
"and me ye have honoured" Ov. 1.41, 17 (var. i^iiot^jo); ' r~^ , iA 8
Jai^"and I made you thieves" Joseph 220, 4 [Ov. 308, 17]; ol»-[ u.Vo
oaj. "and accompany me (to the grave)" Ov. 142, 23 (var. otherwise) &c.
With the Participle, however, which does not take Object Suffixes, the
personal pronoun as Object, is of necessity denoted by X, when the
combination proper to Nouns is not preferred (§ 281).

§ 288. A. The X serves besides as a means of indicating a Definite object
Object. The Determination is more emphatic when the Object Suffix, b^3!!w
answering to the Substantive, is, besides, added to the verb. In the latter ^ '" *i
ease the X may even be omitted. The personal pronoun may be still *»»*>•*

J Sultntttn-

more emphasised (§ 225 B) ; or it may be construed like an independent a™,
noun. Typical cases may be given thus: —

(a) Without Determination [Indefinite Object]: "he lias built a
house" Jk^j |u> or 11= {k*a (there being no Object-sign).

(b) With Determination [Definite Object]: "he lias built the house":

(1) IJS^o ]ia or J»a JlS-a (without any Object-sign, just as in a).

(2) il^a-X |Ls or )la j^.-jV

(3) i^. -j\ ^w. if. or -wJls ik.-jV

(4) \\*2f —Si.l-» or ~5|.ir> !&-=.

In the case of the Part, taking tho place of the finite Verb, X
with possessive suffix is used instead of the object-suffix; thus in our
example ot^. lii is tho regular equivalent of . .^j.i~

in the ApoBt. Apoor. 279, 7 (-fc- %^m "he took me"). It web completely obsolete
in the 4 lh century. The reflexive use of S- (§ S23) is quite distinct from this.

IB*

• — 228 — § 288.

A few examples may suffice for all these cases:

(a) p v-£- Uagy ^»»J»lo oeg/jlb6ov<w %$ (jyoprla fiap^a Matt. 23, 4;
!ki» Jfc^.1 o-aj "lie raised three dead persons to life" Aphr. JOB, 14;
..T^ ILajiji^aiioo JU»o» tot*^-J ?b.uSa "only acquire thou forbearance
and patience" Sim. 270 ad inf.

(h) (1) i&.'SS? oCj-i ^o JbJko (riKiJ ^,-2 |U> Ai? e/So'rEf raj ypa(j>dc
/MJM rip oiva/uv tov SsoB Matt. 22, 29; lAJboj om1o> ' Vj gv> ; ^o "lie
who receives the spirit of Christ" Aphr. 108, 3; oijwoj o)L> \i "they have
not seen his light" Aphr. IB, 13; JLi^ ovai^j tojj "lot him adorn his
inner man" Aphr. 108, 4; ^a-p u^ Bel. "thou restorest Nisibis to mo"
Jos. St. 17, 3; ^ ofj-f imjVtti "his villages he sold" <)v. 166, 14;

^N-" *r. j^i4L I "thy letter, (my) beloved, I have received" Aphr.

6, 1; !ooi «~s| Jj1o> fc^J. ^i ^Jot "these tlrree winds ho held"
Aphr. 93, 9.

(2) imp q ,s . qS .uj«i eiplami "P/Awraw John 1, 43 ; . n . svi ; ^»
JLi*i»j omSovX "he who grieves the spirit of Christ" Aphr. 108, B;
(uojii. ^ K "~* "ye have forsaken the Creator" Mart. I, 124 inf. ;
jo^jl>6)1 "^aJijf "that he may ruin Jerusalem" Aphr. 249, 16 ; ,-U-i-o
^-u-^3 ,j> JLtwii's IjL. "and John saw heaven opened" Aphr. 124, 2
(immediately after J.'vn w^s JLiSs "Elijah opened heaven") ; IV#>-?
to! ■"*;'■ jft-iwjip; "and the lambs of thy flock thou slayost" Mart.
I, 12B mid. (and parallel to it MJ ^aA» ^jji^? i^&^j'o "and the
sheep of thy flock thou destroyest") ; uaasv».£ l ifiVYs "the world will 1
forsake" Ov. 164, 22 &e. Compare !1j-=>o£»jj. tiijij ,oo£»-j ,oofi- "them
the flame devoured" Aphr. 183, 1.9.

(3) ^.jo^stv. -^oiLi*. ^.oiota; jrapaXa/3oVref tov ' hjaovv slg rd Ttpou-
ropiof Matt. 27, 27 ; ofj. wdto£o)g oik.-jN >-6(o»{io "and they surrounded
his house and took him prisoner" Mart. I, 123 (and then o*lS-a oJLao
"and plundered his house"); lyojL^>. ato"^-. n "have received circum-
cision" Aphr. 210, 1; ^.&i , kJbo£X ^{ JL^d "smote all the five (f.)"
Mart. I, 126 mid.; Jbacxp^ o<i. uifnao ooj? Ayidoag rdu xpiwrfv Matt.
23, 17; >m^ daJ^iig^B^jo **idi^. JjoI-£ ^och^ low «*^gv» "the tyrant
flattered the inhabitants of Constantinople" Jul. 99, 21; ^^--w| >&-£
fj-i-Jii. JS& J&kjiS* JL.<StVb! o»i- 0001 "the people of Edessa held this letter

§ 288. — 229 —

in very great regard" Jul. 125, 18; ^Ju! oikajj U\.)i "Jezebel perse-
cuted Elijah" Aphr. 123, 18; ^oi^. iiot >otJ» % >&^> <*^^? "and
lie warned the whole of the female orders" Ov. 177, 7; pas (ioij^. .alo
,oji "and he likewise commanded the priests" Aphr. 112, 13 &e. Of.
farther |*'n"-'" od+X o£». — oioiJLu "they saw that deacon" Sim. 294-, 4;
i/^ -V^ vpot^ vJljI *=» "he took these" .Ink 72, 21 (a similar con-
struction occurs often); v 6otX ^djj t^s! "it (f.) devoured them" Aphr.
62, 7; ^ai'^-ki. j^o ^> ^a^Jslo "and I rescue from death all
three of you" Mart. I, 56, 13 ; ^ojJ >nsl ,ooti. >s!o "he also hronght
them out" Mart. I, 32 mid., as also JL8**> "-"f^? ^° " llnd tlie Lor(1
commanded me" Deut. 4, 14.

(4) — otoJuJ) oiLSvil 4i~~; ouj>Tjicev r)p> yvmwa avrov r& aleXij)®
airov Matt. 22,' 25 P. (different in 0. and S.) ; Jama -S-f*. pitpag rd
apytpia Matt. 27, 5 ; oM^tj. oi^jl "I threw the dust of it (in.) away"
Deut. 9, 21; -«o£.f ^ij Jfa ■■; "changed Iris hands" Gen. 48, 14; ^a
jbii^ka JSit -«j£ "when he uttered tins word" Aphr. 420, 18; wipjs
usoas "closed my mouth" Ephr. Nis. p. 57 v. 73; JIcluo ^| ,am»
^\it J^i, "that he take all these parts" (Jv. 71, 10; ~«<iaj ^i{ V**
Ji-jja "cast his face upon the earth" Jul. 131, 3; >-oia :>■ > >. ofj-j o»»!
J ~>y~ "the dogs licked his blood" Aphr. 183, 16; oi» ?ii-» jia^oii ,ooti.ai
.6j[ *pj.,^"all pledges he had fulfilled in himself" Aphr. 459, 19; |L!j>.
W V ^ji )j "stubbornness they know not" Aphr. 177 ult. &c. The
fourth method, however, is far less frequently used than the others,
at least when the object follows the verb, though it is still common
enough.

The 3 rd and 4 th methods are combined in J£ai.opo JLij? ^J-A *;? <oJ*
JoCiv) )LL£ ,oj| ^^* (iiiii. ^oofcw . . . j-o "but when a godlike zeal. . .
carried away these believing ones" Jul. 138, 1 : we have here at the same
time another instance of the drawling accumulation of demonstratives
and personal pronouns, which occurs not seldom, though it is avoided
by some writers.

B. In most cases complete uncertainty prevails as to the selection
or rejection of a mark to indicate tho objoct when definite, as several of
the foregoing examples already show; cf. farther: i^ ri « \ 6k£»a>J "they

_ 230 — § 288.

have profaned tile sabbath" Aphr. 242, 16, 18, by the side of Jl^vJf- o^m.
"have put away the sabbath" ibid. 17 (twice); Sri fckyipomftyoovot rrpi yyjv
Matt. 5, B )i.»(l 6pot>)iJ ,qjo(? S., l*M c»jo1.>)i 0., JLxS! ^oUb 'oij P. (like
Is. 60, 21), cf. Aphr. 41, 10 ; avatsmt rov Xao'v Luke 23, 5 J&aj. ot^-jl (!. S.,
^•nvN ota^.*. P. Still, it is usual to have some mark when the object
designates a named Person; and cases like > ~t > ^ f » aa*A*| "shall I reckon
Habib?" Anc. Doc. 87, 3 are comparatively rare. On the other hand,
the object-mark is mostly omitted in the case of Common Nouns with
reflex suffixes, e. g. voo^-f.1 ^^iy J^ oil vimovrou t&s %slpcu; Matt.
15, 2; <ood£ij» ^^i" oty&reg rd Vktvcc Mark 1, 18; W»tJj. \oaa
ccdqv rdv Kpafiarw oou Mark 2, 9 sq. ; ^oo***** o^»l>o ^o o ^ vft^ cco^s
"they spread out their wings and raised their heads" Sim. 272, 1 ; ^-*3
woiof^i "he stretched out his hands" Aphr. 18, 17 (and then JLi/o
■ n.N&Vs "and conquered Amalek", with X, as being a proper name) &c.,
and thus, frequently ©t-»aj "se ipsum" (compare to*^-JJ iaji(o o^aj JLoso
"and hated himself and loved God" Ov. 168, 10), although cases like
CH«°tt\ *-^©tij "f°r he judged himself" Ov. 171, 24 do occur.

C. Demonstratives and Interrogatives in the Objective case are
sometimes furnished with X, and sometimes not: ^ofsft ^*^& ,pk-jLt!»
pX^TrsTe raura vrdvra Matt. 24, 2; ^^n jj^ooa ^*o» "these command-
ments we have received" Aphr. 484, 14; i^j !$« . . . e]u> "saw (3* a pi.) tliis
sign" Sim. 273 inf.; ; ooi "eum, qui" Ov. 176, 26, but ; oo£>» Aphr. 48, 2;
<<&aaA. ijot ^o "when he heard this" Jos. St. 55, 14; ^oitiij J?oj ^-N fo^
"these fishes they collect" Sim. 274, 1 ; j qN.JJ "eos, qui 1 ' Ov. 211, 2 and
elsewhere ; j ^-J ibid. 214, 7 and elsewhere. So too j Ppf^ "that which"
Aphr. 126, 20, and even ,oUjif <i£J }°$9-^- "¥?" ■ .^.UA.A. " se t
before me, brethren, whatever ye have vowed" Ov. 141, 8, but j )el&
(Object) Aphr. 145, 13, and thus usually. With ^4 (vjoM, J "^ &c.)
X preponderates, it is true, but on the other hand it may be wanting.
It is peculiar that dJ[, ^xJLil "r/f, TivSg" and j-& "one" are conceivod of
as detennined. The first two forms when standing as Object, have X
throughout: o)u, )j jup oMva sllov Matt. 17, 8; |4oi >s.fj utijj (faj "he
did not even know any one" Sim. 292, 1 ; and many like cases: ,JLiji Ov.
189 ult; and with still stronger determination: juj) «V. efc«jt*» "they

awftkon soma one" Moes. I, 103, 28;(') cf. ibid. 102, 12.— ,-i^. "W^S
dKavlaklirtj Svce Matt. 18, 6; Luke 17, 2; ov-oi;. oJlS ^> ,-Ki. IjL. jj "when
lie saw one. (if his fellow-countrymen" Mart. I, 12, 21; eomp. Spic. 13,26
anil other passages (but Spic. 14-, 25 ^Voi ^> ,-C "^J-o; ,jo "whoever
killH (mo of those"); U ""^ **&l "revived tlie one (f.)" Mart. II, 237 inf.
(.lac. Sal*.); *-£* (il^p&X . . . *f*- "lie sent a Marzban (Satrap)" Jos. St.
17, 10; <>5,2 (but 64,1 fi )»A)-jc>..->^); lf^- IJ&SsfP •«^ a v?^-' n i I?
|L>.iJ "tliat many men take not one wife" Spic. 17, 23 (but 16, 12 IrpJ^
tykjl Ijju. ^S — '■ IJLi^^m); ,poM*> jX fiA. -0-aj "raised every single one
of thorn" A.phr. 165, 16; oifoj (Ooviio t*> r^ ^■ ij ^- " lle endowed every
singlo one of them" Ov. 166, 18. For -o^o)) Ijp^ ojiu "they saw a
black man" Sim. 333, 6 ah inf. (the Lond. Cod. has ^ i i ~»^> "^
|ooi -a-oof}). Thus t' s *^ "every one" John 2, 25; Ov. 179, 2 and
frequently, ^j-ui too is treated like mS: uio (I ,-i-k>)J "he nominated no
othor" Epkr. H, 554 F ; cf. 565 B. So (j"-*>JI "alios" overagainst ^iijl
Ov. 190, 1.

IJtJ^Jsp (pi noXkol), as an Object, also frequently takes X, e. g.
|JG^_js£*. it^jo "and let us enrich many" Aphr. 105, 10, cf. 124, 17 ;
134, 12 &c. ; also with substantive: o>>4j> J-*a>-*f> Wi^"--? "and they
slow many Persians" Jos. St. 60, 13; still we find also ^ona? oaj,"
|J&4_rp "they destroyed many of them" Aphr. 242, 14.

8 289 The X of the Object may occur by the side of another X V of tie

*• , r, * \ ,. s Object

I a true prop.]: )■=»--> - o«p"-}. ioC*. Of aTTkreiXsu o d-so; rovvldv aurou , lme , a ,
sl S ri» K6C/AOU John's, 17; tfajX ^ )!oJ o,^ "the fish brought J""" 1 "
Jonah safe to dry land" Aphr. 66, 18; JLJOj? IfLJI JaAJl <Wj. ,^?»»
"and bring the ship to the place of quietness" Aphr. 458, 6; v iu{ u^.1
•^j, ^ .[ ...~-~v - ^~~\ "led away the children of Israel captive to
Babylon" Aphr. 36, 2; Jl^jaa-^A ^aj»j<S,X ^=>^> <°°*i $ "<%
shall not admit heretics to baptism" Ov. 220, 19 ; ty»il^tji IK**- t****
)L»JI *{ H^Johj-^o "that he bring even the Arians into subjection to the

(i) Of. mil, «V>-P "<me'« knowledge" Bphr. (Lamy) I, 91, 9; «lj «"•- ^^!
"what i. dear to one" Jul. 221, 6 (and tlm. frequently «ijl «X) where the determi-
nation by mean! of the peraonal Buffix is dear.

truth of the exalted Trinity" Ov. 193, 13 &c. "We have even as many
as throe \s, and these, besides, depending upon an Inf. with X, in
Ifoi l^kjjl i^n f yvi n S ^i. .-»nwi"s fJtoJo J^ "we shall not he ashamed
to take this woman under our instruction" Ov. 102, 15; of. u^ uop
lj.ia.V | -^ij-j\ o ^ol£X "oujap/aars iy /mi rdv BapvdjSav /cat rto "Lav-
Xov si; rd Spjw" Acts 13, 2 ; and iaia jja r" v- ? v ,po£v. ott j ))[
<oj[ ^ *syfs "but they hired them Balaam, the son of Beor, to curse
them" Aplir. 213, 7. In ooot ^6 ©^ ^ootlofnoiiviN, (J-lo "and were
wont to call on him for help in their loneliness" Mart. I, 122, 9, o£^. is
indispensable on account of the participle; while in oy^j v oo^Xj
JLcuJjoj o*kjL&aAX "that he may bring them to the service of Christ"
Ov. 175, 19, in spite of the second X, ,oovX occurs in an unusual
fashion in room of ^ojI. Ihit of course, alongside of another X, the X
of the Object is often wanting, e. g. JL^.~> ■ ooi l^a^L oo* o£^~ ob*-o
"and that man gave him that staff" Sim. 272 inf. &c.

§ 290. Examples of double transitive construction: . »5|o .\ } «j»
Ji**V Bt'<£* 8» alr/joei 6 via; avrov dprov Matt. 7, 9; lim» womjjbaojo
ml (icks) aur$ ivoi^fiara Luke 15, 22; ot^p> JiAj "he overlaid it
with brass" ZDMG XXIX, 109 v. 27 (but v. 26 with prep. pj^> JliJUas
aw&j "overlaid his god with silver") ; |1*> w^^t "I asked him of the
words" Aphr. 395, 2; tyfAx ot^->o| "he showed Mm the future" Sim.
371 inf. ; JU*o JLi^Xof otS -»m j "laid severe afflictions upon him" Sim.
337, 9; ; pfi ^J -ojC "he showed them, what" Aphr. 160, 18; (iitty
l^ojapj ,ij- "makes physicians hateful to us" Bphr. Ill, 658 F; wyoX
<»j&£ "show me his Lord" Ov. 296, 2; J^oiotJX. ojojiijtjo "and they
stripped me of the splendid apparel" Apost. Apocr. 274, 16 (Gnostic
Hymn); ^ooiX =»l*olo ^-)?>o.. ^ojl *aJk.l "caused them to cross the Jordan,
and gave it (the land) to them for a heritage" Aphr. 357,8; <jS(jfX J%°
kjiv«.J "and it (faith) gave water to drink to those who were athirst"
Aphr. 22, 6; ^-Jvl "J^ h-H 4°i " ho caused the children of Israel to
inherit the land" Aphr. 20, & &c. In several of these examples it is
only from the context that one can judge which is the first, and which
the second Object; (ticp! ^ JLmjp might, for instance, mean also
"makes us hateful to the physicians"; and uj&£ oi^aX might even

i I'aaaivo
■with Ob-

§§ 291. 292. — 233 — '

more readily suggest the conception "show me to his Lord". Moreover,
keeping certain verbs out of view, we do not often, upon the whole, meet
with such double transitive constructions, especially with two substantives.
The theoretically possible employment of the Aphel as Causative of a
transitive verb, which already has an object, is applied only within a
limited range. It is doubtful whether both the Objects in a double
transitive construction can receive ^..

§ 291. Apart from the participles treated of in § 280 ( ^ . i . ^ \ o^l
"they wear his armour" Aphr. 100, 17; Ki( .a^Jj*. JLlaai "thou art jm.
clothed with glory" Aphr. 494, 12 &e.) the transitive construction of the
Passive of a Double Transitive is very rare, and indeed wholly confined
to certain verbs. Examples : JUirD V nm-Aj "they shall cover themselves
with sackcloth" Aphr. 49 ult; ■fc**2> k^is 3 ^ "thou didst receive retri-
bution for thy wickedness" 2 Sam. 16, 8, and, differently, JiJLa (L.5 a^-tr 9 ^
"they received righteous judgment as a retribution" Aphr. 49, 3 (*) (but
line 6 WLo jL*a); o^»lf JL=.j Ijt^oJ "he was filled with great wrath"
Mart. I, 18, 5; !e>ot )Jso JlaJ "he was full of cunning" Aphr. 61, 11 (and
so, frequently, with ..."syilj and (to, but they are also often construed
with o). Cases like a-u&tfcoi JLvJa.? iv^J J^rr" W 30 " he iE0 ™ B
[is condemned in] the severe punishment of retaliation" Spic. 14, 26 we
have already noticed in § 243. ( a )

§ 292. It must be kept in view here generally, that apart from the ohuaotst
personal pronoun, Syriac has no clear mark or form for the Objective, d0 ,i gnUio „
nor even a clear notion of it, so that these Object-relations are at bottom to 8yI ""''
treated always as mere adverbial adjuncts to the verb, whether with or
without the preposition X. This prep, as an objective sign, is of course
distinguished from its other applications, by this circumstance amongst
others, that it is bound to disappear, with transformation into the Passive.
That the syntactical relation in jow^ v pv" j. ^^5-o is a different one

(i) -J.J- "to pay", "to requite" is doubly transitive, cf. Gen. 50, 15; 2 Sam.
16, 8, 12 &o.

( 2 ) The subtle distinctions, which Arabic Grammar makes between these caser
and the proper Objeot-relation, have no significance for Syriac.

' — 234 — § 293.

from that in jootfrs)) \ovv>g. v»[ might not indeed be demonstrated by
means of translation into other tongues, hut would he so hy means of
transposition into the Passive of "Simeon killed Abraham", "Simeon
said to Abraham": the former would then read 'a! ^> 'm. ^QdLI, the
latter '»! ^o 'a\. ^pLt[. But in the case of many verbs undoubtedly
transitive, the passive construction is quite unusual; and with several
verbs there is a measure of uncertainty in distinguishing \., as an ob-
jective sign, from X,- as a dative preposition.

INFINITIVE WITH OBJECT.

§ 293. The Infinitive, just like the finite verb, may havo an object
subordinated to it. Thus e. g. < ■ (S fl mn \ "to loll me" Acts 26, 21,
and frequently; otlok-frviN "to. put him to death" Anc. Doc. 89, 14;
ujl o«^i ,g v\\ "to serve me" Ezek. 44, 13 &c. (cf. the forms with *~oia~,
6** § 191); besides cases like ^oj| n ftNvp \ "to teach them" Ex, 24, 12;
(Qjf \vin«-?i\ "to hear them" Ps. 34, 15 &c.

With other nouns, nearly all the cases noted in § 288 may be
illustrated also by the Infinitive. It is rather a favourite practice to
place the Object before the Inf. with X.

(a) "Without being determined; JULlS o^^clV "iysipat r6/cva"
Matt. 3, 9; >rmyi\ (yi^xs "to set in order many things" Jos. St.
81, 11 &c.

(b) Determined: (1) jLA^p; ot^ <rfj^ ^n»in\ "to take tho
entire treasure of the king" Aphr. 199, 10; oJJujlX j^\ "■ ow tt.j»
"thou canst make good the dreams" Joseph 31, 11 [Ov. 284, 16];
ism-ftX (jot w5i u^. jjSlsIJ "I have been ordered to havo this done"
Jos. St. 3, 21 ; a.'l^. mihX o , «s J inS ^aj. Jkii; \oJ,cl£. "to learn and
understand the investigation of words is an admirable thing" Aphr.
446, IB.— (2) o^aji. "^Jji^. "to kill myBelf" Ps. 40, 14; Jbw&i.
o fft)N "to tend his people [as a flock]" Aphr. 193, 6; oi^^X ftjl uuajiA
\ vq « ri \ , ^jji; "thou canst understand the saying of our Lord" Aphr.
71, 6; (= f&JaaX) y &v i \ j-a^ooy ooot ^aj "they wanted to keep fast
hold of the Astabedh" ["general"] Jos. St. 89, 8.— (3) J^j(| Vfo^

§§ '294. 295. — 235 —

"to erase the earth" Gen. 8, 21; )«ij-j\ pool's, &act!». "to despoil the
man" Aphr. 130, 3 ; s*tajL&} y>f& K^- ii-fjo (o* o<5t i-*^ )i .'~»j\
o i ^N'v^N . "nam voluntatem Ulam magnam et sanctam non est quod
'poKsib retinere" Spic. 20, 24. — (4) $ot il^& 6»v* ty i\ "to understand
this word" Aphr. 70, 4.

§ 294. Together with these, there are cases in which the object Noun-con-
clearly comes into genitive relation with the Inf. This can happen with
personal pronouns only. Very rarely does it occur with the 1 st sing. :
wlofifon-s "to make me clean" Matt. 8, 2 P.; Luke 5, 12 P.; in the
former of which places C, and in the latter S., read njln >*),vi\. It is
found rather more frequently with the 3 ,a pi. : (Ootlo^g nv i V "to hum
them up" Ot. 126, 2 (instead of (jjj o£o nin\ ) ; v ootl nviS « v i \ "to de-
liver them up" Mart. I, 153, 15 ; ^iSdn-^ fi-j yiS "to render them (f.) in-
effectual" John van Telia (Kleyn) 46, 12; ^i -jsinV "to make them (f.)"
Aphr. 319, 5; . J ti'i5*^' v " to P reserve th™ (f.)" ibid, line 6.

IOTTNITIVE ABSOLUTE.

§ 295. The [indeterminate] general ohject, — the Inf. Ahs. — is not b««<i
of uncommon occurrence with Transitive and Intransitive, Active and v«i>.
Passive verbs. A definite object may also stand alongside of it. This
Inf. serves to give more emphasis to the verb, by contrasting the action
with some other one, or by giving expression to its intensity. Of course
this emphasis has frequently become very trifling. Examples: )£=> )l=»i?
"that he builds up" Aphr. 201, 5 (in antithesis to 'throwing down');
^Y^ " M *~* !4a JJ ,^|I>.**> ooi o^(^Juii> S-%^ (ia^>? " for teacners
are asked questions; they do not ask them" Spic. 1, 17; n n ii.ft in )o^.a
^-<5i mJiiov w/ijtsus Luke 8, 50 0. (-= Aphr. 21, 1; P. S. without Inf.);
,~-jj \J>)& u> <a\ "even when they are victorious" Jos. St. 15, 18; iifsi
Jf*.v h*l» ow "the prophet was very sorry" Aphr. 453, 11; S^jxii )l[
oooi '^Kip "but they destroyed (what he had built)" Aphr. 10, 20;
,tj . »-,.<«. &JJL£B.ip "overthrow it" Aphr. 201, 6; ^f}';' Ifvi fjo "and
while they are continually bestirring themselves" Aphr. 497, 7; )J iiusoo
jjp too, \IZ "but saw no man" Sim. 304 mid. ; fc-!ga> )iAX ¥&&

— 236 — § 296—298.

"why hast thou then [so greatly] sinned?" Aphr. 270, 5 ; tJpJbo JhtoA.f
o^w l^jji* "was she then troublesome to him?" Joseph 293, 2. With the
Part. pass. : ^*$j» ^a oy "killed is he" Gen. 44, 28 ; ^po^ +*&l t^k*j
"torn in pieces is Joseph" Gen. 37, 33; foot < ■ ■ "fo \ i*j» oii^Asp "was it
(in.) then sharpened?" Mart. 1, 126 mid. ; pokso So| o£i- Xooi JLSjll. JjLcS> JU
oux supd/csi itork ttjv Tvpov Sachau, Ined. 2, 14 (§ 279) &c. Thus also
with verbal Adjectives (§ 118) like ja-j^ *°is^? "that he would have
fled" Anc. Doc. 91, 3; v 6fc^go* ^a-Rjj. tO^Aio; "that you would alto-
gether keep silence!" Job 13, 5. Similarly ^t£ ^;..^. *>»? "that wc keep
good watch" Ephr. II, 401 B ; o*-^o )J exfea&o "and is not sick" Bynodes
(Chabot) 28, 17, 22.
pi»o.d § 296. Less frequently the Inf. Ahs. stands after the verb, in which

v.*.' * case tae emphasis is even stronger: ijluM ]|s| J&p ^>°^»- vj>j{ !,U> Ijo
"and he did not see this water at all" Sim. 313, 12; «J£jb? i-^p!t.J f^-?
"it is for tbee to speak" Sim. 315 ad inf.; p-Aao y^ jsoja "arise!"
Sim. 271, 6 (and such construction is frequently found in Sim.) ; ^ js
^,jai "flew [swiftly]" Dan. 9, 21 (— Aphr. 370, 19) ; loo, ^ojKj ^ ,
o^ojLjja o^ijkoo j ouVj "then, as often as he merely thought on his
sanctity" Ov.189, 14; nn h.ot v > poij. ^^oi "only believe" Spic. 2, 13;
i ?° i v> i n i i 'S'j ) ^iSy jojis "only give command, king!" Joseph
117, 11.
without § 297. In very rare cases with the Inf. abs. the finite verb is loft

"'""'' '" ' out altogether: )a-^i> t^?*?o t-a>J& <$*? aiiSiijsa "and sometimes
they put Paul in bonds, and at other times they stoned him" Aphr.
300, 20.
Aii.tmou, § 298. The Inf. Abs. cannot take either attribute, or numeral, or

of another ,, - .

form, taking attributive relative-clause nor can it stand in the plural or genitive,

gIS "' or govern a genitive. If the general object requires a measure of deter-

Obj.ot. urination of that kind, (•) then an Abstract, of another form, answering to

the verb, must be chosen. This however is sometimes done even whore

(') Syriac is commonly satisfied with a simple adverb of quality, e. g. \M |
MMaV) v'» "he did not find fault with them severely" Aphr. 261, 19, where also
ty**W ItU \**» li-i Jj( might have been used.

§ 298. — 237 —

the Inf. Abs. might stand. Examples: J»i JLisasoi *ias~^jl kaso»t[
"Antiooh experienced a violent earthquake" Land 1X1, 244, 18; fc^ib
JaiJJQjoo JL**=» (Lo» "he died an evil and painful death" Him. 333, 3
(a construction like this is common with K^o); U\d 6»i>>a.f> ksfru ,4.0)
"then was it destroyed for tlie last time" Aphr. 399, 6 ; !^a* i V^'li
!oot i-=>il! "he had heen well brought up" Bphr. I, 1 1.0 B ; il^oVoa !«
•jtfraif* "lo, I have blessed thee with a manifold blessing Joseph 297, 9;
JjI ^a^js A Ap , - t w^^. ^^^ ta "for lo, I have twenty times been slain"
Mart. I, 253 ad inf.; I^mv o| JJuai of )!oi ^J.d6j j o " N 7 )JAp »& cfik.
"for not once only shall he be put to death, or five times, or ten times"
Mart. I, 246, 9;( L ) ^.{4= (/? i^ ^,^^? J=-V i?'*^S " tllat tluJ y cir "
oumoise the heart of stone with the circumcision which is not [made]
with hands" Ov. 125, 26; Jj^$ "^jui^ "to put to death" Spic. 17, 20
(where the Abstract is employed to keep two infinitives from coming
together). An Abstract occurs alongside of the Inf. Abs. in lfj> toSiso
JULi ||oij> MJ "thou art suffering a sad death" Simeon of Beth Arsham
(Guidi) 9, 10 — Kn»s, Ohrest. 39. An abstract noun of allied meaning,
but from a different root, appears in an exceptional way in ^=-ai.) J&
Ikj^, (fi JUjI -,'~ "when men lie down in this sleep" Aphr. 170, 12;
and ll^if. ojiio; "they fell asleep" Joseph 105, 11.

Such an Abstract noun may also be represented, where the
connection is clear, by the relative j referring thereto, or by a personal
suffix: iJLAJ ik*-*! If* " tlxe feeDle reprimand which he employed" Aphr.
262, 5 ; ^ojjai \iil <^J>{ (Jo*! U* "the wicked murders in which
men destroy their brethren" Ov. 132, 14; *J^J? I*-?'^ " tlle blessings
with which thou hast blessed me" Joseph 201 ult— 202, 1 [= Ov. 299,
9—10]; a»Jj JUioJ "the fast which they kept" Aphr. 49, 12, and fre-
quently; and so -oia&J "they kept it (the fast)" Aphr. 44, 5.^ Of.
farther — where the words are from different roots — ya o&"? ^<£»jib>
"the offence, which they committed against thee" Sim. 295, 2.

Q) A later recension for liturgioal purposes BnbBtitutes a mora convenient
oonitruotton, with the preposition: -«»A^ W-? r^ «V <W°- Sanctor - Marm -
Hymnal. (Romae 1666) p. 866J (of. Aaliv. 746 i*).

— 238 — § 299.

I' 1 t&^H ^%°'i "r^"-! "they received [were beaten with] forty
each" Mart. I, 197 mid., the word "stripes" is left out, being under-
stood. The instrument appears directly for the blow in IJ& .-.oVJo-ujaio
t;'^ ; "and they give him a hundred strokes" [lit. strike him (with) a
hundred rods] Bedjan, Mart. II, 579, 8; i^"rr ' , ***^ v««t . .^ . fty, " ne g ave
him eighteen strokes with the sword" Bedjan, Mart. IV, 179, 18; —oV-uj°
J ? 'J° «-i "gave him one stroke with the sword" Guria et Shamona 24, 8, 11.

D. loot.

§ 299. The enclitic form loot (tooi with the "West-Syrians, loot with
the East-Syrians)— contrasted with loot haying ot sounded (loot with the
West-Syrians, loot with the East-Syrians) f 1 )— has the signification of
"was" after a predicative Part., Adj., or Subst.: loot jjfrfla "ascended"
Gen. 2, 6; J^.ooi JLjji "I rejoiced (f.)" Prov. 8, 30; loot jo-;;*, "was .
cunning" Gen. 3, 1; J&^k lot^.j loot l^ooi ot* "he was a priest of the
most high God" Gen. 14, 18 &c. So too ^i* loot |JW> ;a "he was an
hundred years old" Gen. 21, 5 &c. It occurs farther after JSU, and, by
way of adding emphasis, after the finite verb (§§ 263; 268) : loot woiokj;
loot 1^; wotd^iw ooot o-^oj "had afflicted him" Job 42, 11; loot loot
"fuerat" frequently, &c. Thus also loot lj with the meaning "not", having
nothing of the force of a verb.

loot, when the ot is pronounced, remains always before its own pre-
dicate: jufj loot o<*> 'Vjjjo "for he was righteous" Job 32, 1; loot Jb^ilo
otoao otot "and the earth was waste and empty" Gen. 1,2; loot ~jL£o
JV*% *^¥ ' <ail| i Cain was a tiller of the ground" Gen. 4, 2 ; jamo-o
^b^ l*« "and Joseph was in Egypt" Ex. 1, 5; ■ ■«•-, loot ^|f lotS.0
"and the God of my father was with me" Gen. 31, 5 &c. So with loot lj
"is not" (verbal); Mji pfo j.jl '&<* lj y=^1 "^%& ij ydp Kafi/a aou oix
Istiv sMsTa Ivwriov toO 6sou Acts 8, 21 ; >mn; ot^of t>-oot )J oifc si fyh>;
TOO Kafoapog John 19, 12. — The ot is also pronounced when some other
word comes in between the proper predicate and loot: loot ; » ~ - \

( a ) For the determination of this distinction, which is not Bet forth in the old
MSS. we are entirely dependent upon Biblical tradition.

§ 300. _ 239 —

jWoai. i/jjt yap iarm j/ iwayyeXla Acts 2, 39 ; loot )i& ota & airS &07
fy John 1, 4.

loot seems also to stand after adverbs and adverbial qualifications,
when those constitute the real predicate, e. g. K*o5t ^< ii vi v ; "Sri fteff
vft&v ■Sjiivp" .John 16, 4; loot J'^'p "iv rw Koaput Jfii" John 1, 10; o.'SS
v 6K.oot KVyv <5> "el S/c tov koo/aov yjrs" John 15, 19 (followed by Jjl |U[
) '" s v> ^> ^l^got with h, because it precedes the predicate) &c: — but,
throughout, loot with h has the meaning "became, happened" (ey&ero):
loot ot£*JJ5» J 'StN a. "6 Koafiog o7' avrov iyivsro" John 1, 10 (loot ot£*JS
would mean "was in Ms hand") ; ^.oot JJ l^oij) ^> ,jll> "tf/isi; sk iropmicu;
oi ysyswfiitsOa" John 8, 41 ; — oot JJj^. k-^=> <^-ot ravra iv "Rrfiariq iyi-
vsn John 1, 28; loVSSj l)Si»i!> loot ^oottoA.} wpdg od; o \6yo; tov Sbov iyt-
vsro Jolin 10, 35; loot )*'**"■ o "and there was darkness" Gen. 15, 17 &c.

After adverbs and adverbial expressions, a diverse understanding of
the loot is often possible, and accordingly variations occasionally occur
in such cases, either among analogous forms in the same tradition, or
among different traditions.

§ 300. The Impf. loop is commonly placed before the Participle, »»»■ °<
to convey the sense of the Impf., — either independently or dependently f„, a,.
(after j). Tins collocation is employed particularly to express continued, l£Z.°"
or repeated actions, or actions determined by ordinance: ot$!n.!o '"' t ' on ■
Jiuj <s[ i~^ lootij Ktzi S^ouaiav Sobkev avrcji Kplaiv <koiw John 5, 27;
lootJ I^V*. ot^. K-l? jo{4 J, -frv?> £ JiaJ> IjJ^Vpoo (AOo ol J^ofoV.j»
■ K-^t "a Visitor or Presbyter or Deacon, who quits the world, shall
leave whatevor lie has to the church" Ov. 219, 24; yooti^af. t^,**?
„jjl> ,6o«3 (j? "for he commanded the Jews that they should not cir-
cumcise thomselves" Aphr. 95, 14; ,oootL vofcJl ilj v 6-a^ )jo J&a
■ ■.!« "how much the rather it befits you that you wash" John 13, 14 S.,
and essentially the same in Aphr. 227, 9 6(]>el\sre vkrsit (where P. has
^o^ilj); ^otLvr^ ^i> ^ootj 1} vKs£? % "that on no account
should women ontor into their convents" Ov. 210, 4 = 212, 4; and many
instances to the like effect in theso Canons, though alternating with the
simple Impf. More rarely without j: Vjjco |os>|| )j "think not" Mart.
I, 218, 1; l^io ^{ lootjo . . . \*U <.} v [ iotn oi sfofl . . . W/» U iced

— 240 — §| 301. 302.

itlvff Matt. 24, 48—49; and quite independently ^i^ ^ootJ *J.VJLo,
literally following the text Corral dXy&waai Matt. 24, 41. "With the
subject-pronoun attached to the participle, thus ^^ (ooyj ^si
y&# t^^k*" 5 " i{ on 'y we m ay enter and be blessed by thee" Sim.
308, 1; |k»ojo l?oty lootj "thou shalt remember the oath" ibid. 323, 2.
So too with Part. Pass. : ^a^ ^ . niy ,oooil ^f .oJul iftaf li [gipea&s]
eKJiakXoniiioug Sfa Luke 13, 28; Jlsboja ^^ (OootJj "tliat they are con-
tinually taken up with fasting" Ov. 177, 2; fi^Ja Io«j "stand" Spic.
17, 17; Mi "S- J*-* ^^?° r^ k°H "it shall be made and pre-
pared and placed at the door" Sim. 377, 8.

Bern. On low with other verbal forms y. §§ 261; 263; 268; 277;
278 B.; 279 B.; cf. farther §§ 260; 324 B.; 338 C. On loot with the Inf!
¥. § 286, and with adverbs § 308.

E. JU.
rr.iimto, § 301. U and its negative JU )J or i^s* (§ 199) are, in their syn-

«o»°™" tax, essentially alike. In the matter of Tense, U (as Noun) resembles
the Part. ; when it is strengthened by an enclitic loot, the resulting com-
bination . then answers to that of the Part, with loot; thus loot fcj is
nearly equal to "end". This loot does not necessarily require to be in-
flected according to gender and number, seeing that JU is properly a
mascuHne substantive in the sg.
with ,.,. § 302. Sometimes i-^j., and more rarely U> is found with the in-

.on.i a., dependent personal pronoun following : JBj Ki>.o "and I am no longer
n ™'"'' in being" Job 7, 21; v oj( t^. "they are not there", "they are not in
being" Jer. 10, 20; Ephr. H, 554 C; III, 419 A.; Ephr. Mis. p. 62 v. 88;
Jul. 177, 15 ; varied by ,ojJ JU JU ouk ski Matt. 2, 18 O. (P. S. ,oc»-iS-l \\) ■
<$\ v ojJ J^i. "non sunt qui veniant" Ephr. Ill, 418 E; ,oj| Ki^j ^.v |
"those who are not in being" (set overagainst vjov-IUj ^.(J) Aphr.
274, 6; (Ojf i^ij. ijovcolv. v lo "and if for the moon they do not exist"
Ov. 70, 3 (for which 1. 1 60j. ^^A.); v ojJ JUj. JLASJ, JUi.y. "i„ tll0
trouble of man they are not [involved]" Ps. 73, 5. JU is a mere copula
in the original passage Rs^oo-jo ^toj JU? "who are you Christians"
Land in, 258, 17 (so in -oto^ofco v 6jJ JU "they are his agents" Land

§ 303,

241

fixes ; nud
n-tono.

JU- BS, 26; and ^djj k.J, ^j{ JM Land III, 91, 17; 140, 17; 141, 12;
!'•■-, 1 ; lint all these passages are translations from the Greek; and in the
very same way we have jofao |!| J^V "I am nothing" Land III, 281, 13;
JSJ Mf Lk.i "where I am" ibid. 285, 7).

8 303. .Far more common is the combination of %..{ with possessive with Knf.
suffixes for the 1" and 2 nd persons; while for the 3"» person i-f is used "
either alone, or with the possessive suffix. The usage here, in some mean-
ings, is made to follow strict rules; in others it varies.

k->! in the sense of "exists", "is extant or at hand" appears most
frequently by far without any suffix: i-!f \l^ ^6-a.a "in every church
that there is" Ov. 217, 4; J&o (var. iooY) oooi K^o "and there was no
water there" Ex. 17, 1 ; JjJLo K.'ij. y [ "if there are no righteous persons"
Apkr. 458, 9, j K.I "est, qui", "sunt, qui" frequently; 1A-^ K.! "est, tibi"
frequently; j*. k.1 (jA^p JL=>J "it is long, till" Aphr. 33, 2 &c. But it
occurs with the suffix also: — wls-l 6>moo.£. "its sting still exists" Aphr.
1 35, 2 ; ioot woto&_£>-; pj& J^» "he created what was not in being" Bphr.
Nis. p. 55 v. 144; w«o^.i fj ot*>o_u> JL&iol of "or fate has no existence
at all" Kpic. 9, 9; i- ti^ Loot o*.k-l lj >s|; ^ot "she, who did not even
exist at all before" Ov. 203, 16; pfj -oiofc^. jj "when Adam did not
yet, exist" Aphr. 158, 11; s_^ wSoiJj ^» ^6-s "for every one who
exists" Kpic. 4, 15 &c.

The bare form predominates also with X in the signification" be-
longs to", "is the. property of": y^. K.J ^ "when thou hast something"
Pi'ov. 3, 28; ofi- ftt»i| ^a "^AX. mavn ra '£%wti ("unto every one which
hath") I mltc 19, 26; ) lnji\ -.^kjp «S- ^>-?o ^ o>^. Mj "who-
ever lias anything denies it, and whoever has nothing, struggles to got
possession of something" Spic. 47, 2. In none of these three examples
is there any definite subject. ( lompare ofi. K.I )LJ jajj. "he has to do
with the judge" Isaac II, 42, 104. Farther, uxojl& jaa»o ofj. Ml §
oC*. jjfip ^A|o o^. k^-) )Jo oi^ "he, who has it ()Uxp the possession)
and loses it, does not find it again, and he, who has it not and runs after
it, (loos not overtake it" Aphr. 356, 2; too^k. oooi KJ )=>oi;; )tf,£ij "they
hail guidon ear-rings" .fudges 8, 24; )ua*otso oi^. oooi K.I ^ lst£| "but
he hail believing parents" Sim. 268; iooi i^fi*. o(^sq.jLV JiAcpo "ami his

- 242 - § 303

•beauty was unbounded" Sim. 272, 13 ; !tv? ofj- lis t~!> "who bad a
daughter" Sim. 273, 12; |ioo.5acp JU | ? »f> ^i^. "for all distresses
there are remedies" Aplir. 135, 3 &a.

Very rarely occur cases like ^ y i n a !^°V-H <$?• =>t-Vi 1i " 1mt wc
have liberty in ourselves" Spic. 13, 4.

With other prepositions or adverbs likewise, the bare form. K.J
appears freely, although kj with suffixes often occurs too, especially
when it comes after the prepositional phrase. In such combinations the
signification is indeed gradually passing into that of the pure copula:
i^io low -Sio^J k*ijo h dpxt ty 6 Wyoj John 1, 1; W^^J ^£=»
JLamio Jij^^- M )»%" ^£=° "for in every land and among every
people there are rich and poor" Spic. 18, 4; l^.f-1 <*£ M "in whom
is knowledge" Spic. 3, 11; J&4' ^Woo£ •/*&*$■ H^> (^ M V " tllere
is no strength in the wicked man to stand against the good" Aphr.
182, 4; l|oo^ (jot***- *-^- "Judas is not with them" Aphr. 65, 2; ^iX
...a. ^W>. kjj |i "all that is upon me" Spic. 3, 21; KS*. lf%*| ^ioo
wLaX "and with whom is no truth" Aphr. 182, 13; $1 K-! "are there"
Spic. 14, 1 &0.— -Stelj-i J-?*3=S !o>^? B-*» " tte nlth of 8in which is
in the villages" Ov. 116, 7 (parallel to !kbj»! Jbjiia kj> i^fr"
"the sin which is in the streets of the towns" line 6) ; ... ^<i£ (*) ^
^ <ot»A.! "all faults . . . are in me" Ov. 141, 4; -«o^-J <6ov=. iip^
low "God was in them" Aphr. 70, 6; ll-^fa ^po*-%-tf ^j-j J*i! "the
brethren who are in the convents" Ov. 213, 11 (alongside of t~J? Jj-<«*$
.6«lj}.y=> "the monks who are in their districts" Ov. 216 ult.) ; -A
l&» a^> o^lS-i? "she, wlio is in the midst of the sea" Apost. Apoor.
274 paen. (Gnostic Hymn) ; MpaaSi otJfe-i W*V ^H **! ^- " for
upon the top of high places is Wisdom" Prov. 8, 2; oo?*-! ^-! ^>
oo5) voo^k-J "from those who were with him" Ov. 162, 14; ^afi.ia a^.
looi sn-fc-i «4^ " if ;t l"" 1 Deen always with him" Aphr. 128, 3; ot^f
~L.j woiol^lj. "the solution of -which is not with us" Ephr. Ill, 687 0. &c.
U occurs constantly with the suffix, when it is merely tho copula;
thus in cases like v "- t W w ?* j£ ' <i W '** *>*k4 C " tms is 11()t,li "g 0,Be

O Bead thus.

§§ 304. 305. _ 243 —

save the sword of Gideon" Judges 7, 14; ^JLS. JWo ^Jbai j.s .amo..
loot wojotyl "Joseph was fifty-six years old" Aphr. 46B, 11 (in the
parallel passages merely !ow) ; ot^ofV^ ^> )lo£i JSot )&<*% ^? loot wSjolvJ
taii "hut this blessed Rabbulft was from his childhood a heathen [had
boon brought up as a heathen]" Ov. 160, 11; ; n » V j |Wt ,-&). ,.} oif^i.
loot ^-oto^.( "his work there, however, was only this" Ov. 168, 15; ©»o4^o
Ja^jiio! o+-k-| &&$ "and her inward part, which is wasted, is Jerusalem"
Aphr. 98, 9; JLijjLso; — oioJil .6w-t>-i >&*•*• <*J=»o "and the sons of
poaco are the brethren of Christ" Aphr. 305, 5 &c.

With suff. of the 1" and 2" a person: ,o-aJ^-t !i*°^?i J=>1 £ <jkJl
ti/iii; Sk tou warpd( tou hafioXov hrt John 8, 44 ; *^-l ^=>J <J "if thou
art willing, so are we" Aphr. 493, 18; J fe > s~> ^K.1 j^. "as long as we
are still in the world" Ov. 195,19; — ^-! ISfflnys )!J "I am a Christian"
Moos. II, 73, 18; i^oot -tjjj y.\ "as I was" ZDMG XXIX, 116 paen.;
^.R-l Jlj^'mN "we are robbers" Sim. 365 mid. ; JUj/^lp ,.!>-! Jl <ju<j| "we
are no magicians" Mart. I, 182, 3; JUL| Jiot .a{ y-^»!j y{ "as thou art
now also the head" Jul. 18, 3; ^oK-oot ^oaA.! !I^>fo i^oi-JJj ifjaj
"in what anxiety and fear you were" Jul. 21, 15.

8 304. Examples of the uninflected state of low with W : low kj lw »-l

° r . with Pemi-

{bos! 6^ "she had an handmaid" Gen. 16, 1 (Ceriani tow K.1); 1^1 »i»e and
. ^1 -litt^.; loot kj |) ^.; "but there were no brethren, who dwelt there"
Sim. 286 mid. ; «.>. tow Wf ) Vv' t**i "other tilings which he had"
Sim. 276, 7; loot hU ^LaJ <*a»lg ^si >&jSl! I|a*>? low k.l Ifoj a^.o
| [ yN "and in the midst of the fire was the form of four beasts, and
every one had four faces" Moes. H, 98 v. 358; Jiao low t^. "there
was no water" Aphr. 452, 13 (var. oooi k*X) ; J. irrn ie (ia'mio Jjoii
_&1 loot k-lj "the gleaners, the poor and the strangers, who were there"
Sim. 276 inf. Often too in translations from the Greek low (OW-^-l,
loot ^A-tsJ alongside of oow vow-k-l, -jot ,jw-k»f. ■

3 305. That bU answers, as regards syntax, to the Part, (of loot), K.I n .

1 ) II ..i a -r plojed like

is shown also in constructions like ujljlwj^ >-5>~l 1} ^ before J. was „ P „ rtl .
in existence, thou didst fashion me" Ephr. HI, 342 E; i-lj jofso^ ^S Sj," m ,
o^. "he sold all that he had" Ov. 165, 24; -woK.1 ,-j-io JA4? • • ■ <^ ° f '•■>•
"they learned where and how he was" Ov. 169, 23 ; ... AA% -%-.! fi

16*

— 244 —

§§ 306—308.

&wt and
too, with
Adverts of
Quality.

K.001 k-ju, "when I was a boy, ... I saw" Ov. 154, 10 (of. § 275). Ac-
cordingly the word has been combined, like a participle, even with the
Impf. of low (§ 300) : JE£ o^. k-l .jooti; ^^ Sfowa/ &»^» 5x«» John
5, 26 C; li*S • ••<;> -WOK-! |oo^} y.-! "in order that he may be an
on sample for us" Ov. 159, 7; -oiok_l lj»J ))? "that ha may not lie" Ov.
62, 22; itA» «* 1 M, h°*h • • ■ J^j )?*>"" * ^V? "Hmt ^ le discourse
may be about a great change" Jos. St. 92, 4; <o^^o{ jL-^v. ^.ot N ^ a ;
(ysfc^o bJt looti JLf';ait>? "that in all the churches there may ho a
Gospel in separate parts [«. e. a book of the Gospel arranged in the
original order], and that it he read" Ov. 220, 4; Iooij; ^ oot-
<*£*>} y.1 . . . ,.^-i "gave to us that we should be, as it were, of
him" Eegulae Monasticae ed. Ohahot (Accad. dei Linoei, Rend. 1898,
41, 15), and thus, frequently, — particularly in translations from the
Greek. Jacob of Edessa has the word with a purely future signification
(Epist. 13 ed. Wright p. 11, 7): ioo^io woiokjo I&6| -oio^.l> !«.£>
wv^ w*5*oftwi "God, who was, and is, and shall be for ever" So even
Lai jjooio JQ-u ^ot\o Jooi k*J ?9°^? " s0 that they even had life and
great reasoning power" Moes. II, 1:04 v. 444. "With the Part. : o« p^
h^l io&; iij=*-oo "cursed is the opinion which exists" Epbr. Ill, LUI
ad inf. One translator ventures even upon y^-i -5m h6i Lagarde,
Reliq. 21, 23, 24.

§306. On K.I with the. Inf. v. § 286. So too oj^. MjUiaj j^aj
*^U( "wliich could fool without the soul" Moes. II, 92 v. 242 ; JL2a^)iJb2>
oui l°o*J? oi^ kj . . . "a chosen vessel shall lie become | lit. is it to
Mm that there he of liinij" Sim. 278 ad inf., where Coil. Luiiil. has merely
ot.uo io»; and thus frequently.

§ 307. When translators put ^ kJ for Kjjan (also oiX kj for Bx«
' "he is" [of circumstance or condition]), they sometimes furnish the object
of ex 5 '" *° the Syriac with X also : thus even ^iA K-J ,jaj '^&=> )j ^ u^.
Ifts oi oi wavr&rs tyere Matt. 26, 11 (S. is different); John 12, 8.

§ 308. Sometimes twl, — and even iooi,— is combined with adverbs
of quahty instead of adjectives: J^l^J^ -°»V1 MVW' vl "^ t ' K '
word is true" Dent. 13, 14; and frequently in translations such as K. y ,l. *\
,oot^-i "they are in an evil case" Euscb. Theoph. 2, 84 (towards the

§§ 308 b — 310. — 245 —

end), &c. — oCi. low kjls "it would lie better for Mm" Ephr. in Zingerle's
Ohrest. 257, 8; o)kJ.J*> Loot k^-jjo loot JUo "and his coming was not
in vain" Aphr. 150, 15; JU-5X )^-.Jti*S> oooi ^oio "and it went badly
witli them in the end" Aphr. 293, 5; -ooi v to!va? k. gip*aj8 "our
ohastonings were manifold" Jos. St. 4, 14.

8 308 b . A very rare construction and one pronounced by BA ^ &-'

o " = simple

no. 650 to bo old and rude, is 'X tJt — simple W: ila_iak ii n \ aAJo k.1.
laaoi "and the writing is thus" Land III, 327, 24; ). * . vS «| )iaj ^> J
JUa^Jj !>o*i. oS}* *-t "whether this observance comes from the time
of the Apostles" Jac. Ed. in Lagarde, Rel. Jut. Syr. 144, 4. Of. BB
p. 151, 4.

II. THE SENTENCE.
1. THE SIMPLE SENTENCE.
A. THE SIMPLE SENTENCE IN GENERAL.
8 309 The Nominal sentence,— that is, the sentence which has a Hratod

o Sentence.

Substantive, an Adjective, or an Adverbial expression as a predicate,— y„ M
is not very sharply distinguished in Syriac from the Verbal sentence.
The Participle,— becoming a pure Verbal form, but yet betraying its
Nominal origin—, which is widely employed as a predicate, and bU,
which in like manner comes near to the Verb, mark stages of transition
from the Nominal sentence to the Verbal sentence; while on the other
hand sentences with the Substantive verb loot can scarcely lie regarded
as truly Verbal sentences. Farther the inner constructions severally of
Nominal and Verbal sentences in Syriac do not greatly differ.

S 310 A Nominal predicate, when set beside a Subject— without o«imi«
a copula— may form a sentence, just like a verb : l{ovaa». ^> •*-£} Jm-o
"love (is) far removed from vainglory" Aphr. 256, 14 (v. farther ex-
amples, with Predicative Adjective § 204 A, and with Participle
§ 269 m .); ijotoi J&oi "love is light" Aphr. 257, 22; \Z°U ^ »

— 246 — § 311.

JL.fSo»i "^j-fio. - **; "this is the Apology against the Jews" Aphr. 331, 14;
yiuu L^J "the Good Being is thy name" Aphr. 493, 10; J=>a& o«a "in it
is love" Aphr. 297,7; Ito-A.;; (JaJ Io^J-l. (J ^^.ixao "and in this there is
neither sin nor righteousness" Aphr. 308, 3 ; ^ yjM <*> "there is in us
of thy spirit" Aphr. 488, 11 &a. It is hut rarely that a copula is wanting,
in longer sentences, as in l\*\bl JUXL 6ta» t£°t-9 »ap{; JA^& «aol ifoi©
JLijio L£J£o i jj . ^ a. JL3AJ0 "and farther this utterance, — of the winch our
Redeemer declared that upon it hang the Law and the Prophets, — is
heautiful, good and excellent" Aphr. 30, 1 &c. But the omission, not
merely of every copida, but even of the tense-marking looi, is very
common in short subordinate sentences, like oio4^» LoiiJ t-j "while there
are just persons within it" Aphr. 457, 16; ^ou-io )j.p«.o ' *' ^" ,_d
li^o^ "while the vine was torn out and taken from them" Aphr. 463, 5 ;
y*iOjJ3 <N os o$ ^ "while our wickedness before thee was great" A phi*.
488 ult. ; !v**° *? Jf-^*^,? M^J if" iV s »'" c> — M? " an(i brought
one great hewn stone, which was well polished and beautiful" Sim. 271, 7 ;
l^ ^flfta fl ^nSfr **^oi ^. "while these poor people were still in the
Mandra" Sim. 312 mid. &o. (cf. §§ 275; 305). Wherever the past is
involved, looi (Low, oooi) might also stand here. Thus in J ofi. loot K.{
" * vt « ot^Aj Jj(_o( JLS| "but he had another brother, whose name was
Shemshai" Sim. 268 ult, the Cod. Lond. has '*. — ps Joot otsu.;.
pronoun of § 311. Apart from sentences of the last kind [§ 310], the employ-

por..'.. ment of a copula is far more usual. First of all, the 3 ,a pers. pron. serves
oopnio. as suc j 1j )j e j n g rea u T a re f erence indicating or recalling the subject. For
>a-»J !&($■{ "God is righteous", there is often said ooi •jLj) Jit^ or
Jot^> ooi -o-fy. Thus otoV$jj oS oj "great is his sin" Aphr. 45, 10 (1. 8
otoi^u "-^? Jj, without ooi) ; ^Sjjj ^> ooi ^a«. ot±j "his weapon is
weaker than ours" Aphr. 137, 21; otaij. otS* ooi woiof!] "his whole
heart is with him" Ov. 278, 26 ; (LAXoJb ooi lifjp "older is the promise",
and |IJ s »fi -oi Lfcofj "older is the word" Aphr. 27, more than once ;
! v^ ooj JLuja v j "if it is a disgrace to thee, that" Ov. 162, 8 ; ^} ^oal
o5i Jocfysj i srarjyp ijnm 'A.j3pad/U. sari John 8, 39 ; ^J ^Jt^Cas}
^.oiofaii^. "that his creators are many" Aphr. 51, 7 ; ^ojj !i¥='V i <»%-A
L»Jo "these are the men and women" Sim. 271 ad inf.; j^^^djj *)■'•'■ y

Subject.

§ 312. — 247 —

Jbjbo JL^ijjt Jijl? "for the .just and the upright arc the salt of the earth"
Aphr. 457, 5; ^Vot «oj( ^° " w ^° are these?" Sim. 271 mid.; -oi )li
(jcj) ua "what then is this?" Aphr. 13, 12; and frequently also "who is?";
also "what is?"; ojot "this is" &c. It occurs, though rarely, with the

Part., as in J^J| ^ JUJf o *£-!? M t^^ e*^" " tllc J nst antl
the upright are always found on the earth" Aphr. 455, 11; 457, 2;
Jloj-po ^>-<^ r>{ JJMp "these chastenings are sufficient" Jos. 5, 16.

"§ 312. A. When the subject is a personal pronoun, it is sufficient r™»»-i
'to set it down once; and in fact it stands oftenest as an enclitic after the .
most important word in the predicate : Ji! o-oj "I am innocent" Job 33, 9 ;
^.. yjiiij. "we are thy people" Aphr. 488, 9 ; >~u|j Wj^ )»? oijo^J "am
I then my brother's keeper?" Gen. 4, 9; kill )a~a£ <J "if thou art wise"
Prov. 9, 12 ; l«S>| KJl o^p o! . . . ftjj iwSv o|J "that thou art either God,
or the son of God" Addai 3 ult. ; ,-JLoj ^ofcoj -ojoia "ye are the sons
of Cain" Aphr. 331, 9 ; ooi JjJ d "he is my brother" Gen. 20, 5; ooi Ijpf
(iSsf "that he is the Son of God" Ot. 163, 12 ; -w i^j "she is precious"
Prov. 3, 15; JH>! -« |£s~! "she is a tree of life" Prov. 3, 18; JfaaVl;
Jl&^&*>» ,oj! "that they are the disciples of Christ" Ov. 177, 4 &c. For
1"' and 2" d Pers. of. the Participial forms, § 64.

In the case of two Participles, the Subject pronoun does not need
to be repeated, e. g. ^.jLio ,oM! ^s»*? ^i « oxousts Kai fikmsTe
Matt. 11, 4P. (C. votsi! ^ao.»? )o f *>o ^M ,-M>? f>?>)\ M,V^J M ^5
t_*iUk&o "thou art exceeding angry and wrathful" .Tesussabran (Chabot)
554, 11 ; ^Tlo v 6Ml ^.ni )j p|i2> <+>& "from me you receive nothing,
and depart" John. Eph. 399, 15.

B. It is far less common for the pronoun of the 1" and 2" a person
to stand alone at the commencement. A certain emphasis is usually
conveyed in that arrangement: {a£j s^.*. )S[ +$ "when I was still but a
little boy" Apost. Apocr. 274, 9 (Gnostic Hymn); Ifc^o y>\ Uf ^
Skik&o "whilst thou art uplifted, vainglorious and proud" Aphr. 270, 8;
similarly 11. 10, 11 ; i^-i»*>o J^3"° Wis, M " for tll0u art waitin S antl
hoping" Aphr. 341, 6; ^aai vpKIij )op2> & aicoisrs Luke 10, 24 P. S.
(C. voto! '*}) immediately after .oliol ^jLij pf*> a ii/xsT; fkiirere; low )j
^^.v. ^jfcjj ^^a oil yap i/ai; iari al XoKoOvtb; Matt. 10, 20 P. S. ;

— 248 — § 312.

^»i <*kj] Ij 01 ^X *V«# Xe/ere (a question) .John 4, 35 P. S. (0. ^KiJ
^otof t*i^o{); r^-V \?^I W^P 0//,sig yap ovic sfakpysaOs Watt. 23, 14 G.
S. (P. \okJ{ ^&^.); o£j. ^-t-* JJ voKifj l^+l r/v vfxsig ovic oioare John 4,
32 0. (P. S. ^pM ^ r )J v okj(j ( r i) ; JLfxjj $ Il^tto J^f.Jo "and I
acquire knowledge and understanding" Prov. 8, 12 &c. So in S. farther,
Matt. 13, 17; Luke 22, 29 and 70; Luke 10, 24. "With the 3 rd pers. this
is more frequent: Jja_»a5 woto "and she leaped" Sim. 273 inf. {Cod, Lund.
adds Looj) &c.

C. The personal pronoun as Subject is very commonly placed at
the beginning, and then repeated enchtically before or after the leading
word in the predicate, so that this second form constitutes the copula:
JLpo jtf JSf "I am the Lord", occurring often; Jbo^Ao Jil ltf**p W©
"and I am dust and ashes" Gen. 18, 27 ; JSf wtosj JS[ "I am as thou"
Job 33, 6 ; JAJbo JSf JSJ syw £//« 6 Xpicrog Matt. 24, 5 ; ujl£ ^jll> ^jl-l.
looi^a! "we are the sons of Abraham" Aphr. 331, 5 (1. 15 **i=i ^qj[ ,ju>

"surely thou, Sennacherib, art an axe in the hands of him who hews,
and a saw in the hands of him who saws therewith" Aphr. 82, 2 (1. 4
^d-u»f y-ts-f (^oJwO "and art a rod for striking with"); fiol ^ iJf "ay
rig si" John 1, 19; v aaj ^» ts.il o» Kj( J&». "fxij au jusi%ccv si rov vrarpdg
yjjuav" John 8, 53 &c. In particular this use is often found with the
Part, as in jSH ? a^_ JJJ &c. Ho fit JJf sy® sijui "it is I" Matt. 14, 27, and
elsewhere. So too when the pronoun of the 3 rd person stands for the
subject, the same word is frequently subjoined as the copula, and in fact
the two arc often directly combined: (&.*¥•£ <*o^& ***$ o-o©i "be is the
chief of all created things" -Iob40, 19; fLftoi (or o^ot) — o» — ot "she is the
woman" Gen. 24, 44; JL&Jbo aioo); on avrog sartv 6 Xp/aro^ Matt. 16, 20;
cf. John 4, 29.

D. But the pronoun of the 3 rd person often appears too in the
enclitic form as a copula with the l Ht and 2 nd persons as Subject: oot Jj|
j^p "I am thy son" Gen. 27, 18; w^xflp oot JSuf "thou art my hope"
Job 31,24; uiSjaol w.5) — Kit "thou (f.) art my confidence" ibid.;
JUiyJbo ooj fioj ov si 6 Xptorog Matt. 16, 16 (cf. 26, 63J ; w>n\ ^ojf ^ju>
{ot^f "we are the people of God" Aphr. 331, 4 and 15 (cf. supra 0);

§§ 313. 314. — 249 —

|^>|; JLfiSSo (jjj v?^! &/M$ sots to aka; T9j; yy; Matt. 5, 13; ,oU!
Ijpjj J^a v qj{ "ye are the stones of the Held" Ov. 115, 12, and thus
frequently vj"l v?kj' Aphr. 286 sq.

§ 313. The Copula may farther lie expressed hy K.! with suffix U ».
(§ 303), while loot does not represent a proper copula, seeing that it is OTa ,
always an actual Tense form. But in all these cases the language has °'™°°,'" e
a wide choice among various modes of expression. Instead of the two Ul * c°p«i».
forms cited in § 312 for ''we are the sons of Abraham", viz: — ^-Jjj
ttoup] uia ^-1a> and '=>{ '=> ^ojJ ^iaj, the sentence might also have run
thus: '=>! '=> ^.lj-1 <;!" or ^lu 'a| 'a ^uj or merely '=»! 'a ^^ or, —
slightly emphasing the subject, — ^J-u 's,l 'ia.

§ 314. The omission of the subject, when it may be understood suijoct
from the connection, takes place not only with Participles, which pass
over to the category of verbs (§ 253), but in certain cases also
with Adjectives Thus in particular, in short accessory clauses, e. g. :
.60^. \ ■ ™ r>; "who are in need" ("to whom it is insufficient") Ov.
217, 14; oJ£> J& "what he was due" Matt. 18, 30; ««.feu ^o -ojd hi/xsvs
KW(j>6s Luke 1, 22; )i^a yo oitrn ly/tvi? Luke 2, 5; oi^^d^i? ^-Vf y?o
!jL> "and when he was on the point of entering, he saw" Sim. 271 mid.
(and frequently thus with ,jj) &c. Farther in short sentences, rhetorically
pointed with o : )*.ia-oiK»o y^. ^°-*j t^"-^? ^V^° ^V ^?^? ^^o^ ?
"of those who were killed I have written to thee, and (it is) true [on the
Pern. v. § 254 C] ; those who were stoned I have signified to thee, and
(it is) to be relied upon" Mart. I, 120, 9; -otot^j *"4»S — oiooJJuo
uuLoo ^.oio-o}JD wio»o "they struck him, and (he was) cheerful, lashed
him, and (he was) proud, lacerated him. and (he was) pleased" Moes. II,
56 v. 124; oCj. ^ioi-JS otj&a J-^j ~omj'i^j» J^^td "lacerating combs
(were) in his sides, lashes on his hack, and (they were) trifling to him"
ibid. 57 v. 175; |Kd;J '^cj. .o.imo "and (he is) in need of alms" Aphr.
8 uti. ; &<"*£>■- !o^;o "and for avarice (that is) but little" Aphr. 268, 5
(where there are additional examples). Farther ^laio j-^^J^J'for
they are circumcised and uncircumcised" Aphr. 204, 4 (where the Part,
influences the Adj.) ;— <^** |l )=?&*> ^8-^ ?">&* IJi "" ut over smnc
things they have power, and over others none" Spic. 9, 23 ; cf. 10, 22.

of the
Nomin

SoiltGIlCi

— 250 — § 315—317.

Time-nmgo § 315. The Nominal sentence in itself denotes a state of being, and

Nominal accordingly, first of all, it represents the continuous present (§ 269).
By the context, however, it may. often become plain that the state
or condition concerns the past, i. c, is contemporaneous with the
time of the principal clause. Thus e. g. jaganN^r*? ^och^ loot tAa.&»
JUcJboj ^qa[ foviS. 1; . . . ^ooJu "he urged them to show in every thing
that they were (are) disciples of Christ" Ov. 177, 3; oi^. K*(; J^o ^*£
irdvra. 6aa eixev Matt. 13, 46 ; oiX K^ JL^ad? • • • J&*» • • • (£l> "he saw
the people, that had no limit" Sim. 271; o-£^spt| v qj[ ^sot ^ ev t$
slvai atirovg h/cet, &Jrkfo$yacat . . . Luke 2, 6. Cf. on this use in the case
of the Part. § 275, in which, case, however, it occurs far oftener. In par-
ticular, the indication of past time is often wanting in short Relative
clauses, of which the predicate is an Adverbial qualification (§ 355). —
Sometimes, though hut rarely, a Nominal clause is employed to delineate
in a lively manner - a past condition, just as in the example given in the
foregoing section 'jlo ^oiqa^ JLo-^jqd &c.

§ 316. The separation of the Subject from the Predicate by means
of o, in short successive clauses, is a purely rhetoiical device, exemplified
in JLi^J/ tsfftto Jju* ?W>% JifrN* &Sj*ok*?o Jto-ii.ja Kof^.o llo^L
'm,o o-;_o |Jo Jls . p o m K^o "Joy, it was fled; cheerfulness, it was re-
moved; peace, it was chased away; quietness, it was driven off; help,
there was none ; assistance, it was not near &c." (eight more clauses of
the same hind follow) Mart. I, 12 ult, and in JLo>aa ^jixmso JU^/j
^fivrnft g IfcoiLA^, ^ J^ Jioog J^Jjj ^£Ajjaoo "the feet, they are struck
off; knees, they are cut away; arms, they are torn out; haunches, they
are struck off" Mart. I, 255 mid.

NOMINATIVE ABSOLUTE.
Nominative § 317. It is not uncommon by way of emphasis to place a noun

Absolute. _

nrst, and leave its proper grammatical reference to be cleared up by
a personal pronoun which comes after, and which answers to it. Of this
class are constructions like ^suia lk+a "the house, he built it" (§ 288);
on this also rests the employment of oot as copula together with other
devices described in § 311 sq. In particular, we have in this class cases

§ 318. — 361 —

like I ■'■ ■ -" aiooi !v=H JVji* " tne ^ eai ' ''S^t, — iftat is Christ" Aphr.
14 10; )'■ Ua ot^j JLiai -ot ~ot ,.} Jl^mllS^. "the foundation, — that is
the beginning of the whole building!' Aphr. 7, 2 &a. But a like courso
is followed also in the most diverse grammatical relations C 1 ) : ^.A
j^i jioj (jwX Uo) ^ooAaiaj ^>o^oj> "to all these their purity was
a complete fast" Aphr. 46, 17; Soli? JLSsoio -oiojpll^. p£p Jij IjM W
"of this great city the king of Assyria laid the foundations" Moos. II,

63 inf.; <J! <«=%*>(*) ot%**$ M ^*?* " now tlle ram ' B hornS ar °
broken" Aphr. 83, 20; ? IJj! 6|£ -6£l.{ pja ooju^j j^ot^iXj "for
in Jacob's prayer the mystery was prefigured, of..." Aphr. 63, 17;
e^&aj "^JtJ cx|ali-& ^& (-^ "%-?* "for Abel's offering was
accepted for "the sake of Ms faith" Aphr. 18, 4; ialtp IM ty r¥°
a^xu. "and whoever is not ashamed, — his wound is healed (— 'h&o
tdta ))? £? )i-"a*) Aphr. 136, 3; A^i o^&X r^^ *3*&1 <£-'?
] \!^,r. ^j^ijjjb ~i^'l "and those who press on and approach him,
into their secret ears his savour distills" Aphr. 449, IB ; ^»-j Jikj oot
\3^Jis \2xg> • ■ ■ ofj^=» -!*.).{ ... low Y't" "e^s? " 011 a11 tllilt garment,
which was wrapped about bis body . . . appeared . . . only one single
colour" Ov. 165, 7, and frequently thus with longer or shorter relative
sentences: i^l^ J*. »J If* J£ "I have this to say" Aphr. 486, 5;
oisj, Jjfcj. *afU>o JJjyi o« £? ^J- <^e • • • ^^f M* tfr" " since
we* stand high, the whole people look to us, and let themselves bo guided
by us" Ov. 173, 11 &o. With Demonstrative pronoun: ^> (=»!f J&V%-
j.y^S oj-j. -Wgo ow oSi ^». IfjL^ e*^£ "the sheep which has been
lost out of all the flock,— about it the shepherd has anxiety" Aphr.
142, 10.

CONCORDANCE OE THE PARTS OF THE SENTENCE.
§ 318. The words JUVoi "villages", \-qaJ, "asses", and JAJ? when ooii.oti«».
it signifies "men", are. regarded as true plurals and are always construed „ a P1 ^,
with plural forms. The collective nouns denoting animals vary. Thus

( a ) In short sentences, however, it ia comparatively rare.
( a ) Read thns.

— 252 — § 318.

ix*. "small cattle" is sometimes sing., sometimes plur., of. uX^. U,^»lf
"my sheep were scattered" Mart. I, 47, 1) (followed by a immlior of other
verbs in the sing.), along with <j=-aJ} ovii. foot uooi^o "put his sheep in
heat, that they might multiply" ibid. 46, 5 &c. It is exactly the samo
with Iv^ 3 "larger cattle": sing, in Ov. 93, 19; pi. in Ov. 7!), 18 »/.
Others, like Ijjaa "a herd", JAuj "vermin" are wholly or prcpondoratingly
singular.

The collective nouns wliich denote persons, are at first construed
as singular; yet they may also he treated as plural, and so may other
words wliich only in a transferred meaning denote a collection of persons,
like !|1J "a land", |Ki-^n> "a city": their attributive adjuncts remain,
however, in the sing. Examples: — JL&i. o)u> "the people saw" Ex. 32, 1 ;
JMj °»V°-= <*^k=kj! airoypatyead-at waoav rypi olicovpiivtpi Luke 2, 1 S.
(P. laSii. ot^i o^oij>) ; JLj|o4-j Jtfii. ois ^.fookjuoo e*a njirk-" "the
people of the Jews are proud of it, and glory in it" Aphr. 231, 12 [pi.],
along with ^.j^n.)? J&i. 6» >ookA» JLcu!; "in which in vain the people
of Israel glory" [sg.] id. 242, 4; ,ijj *f»o i "^ . . . ai*=uj JU> )!•"■" J hqj.
"the foolish [sg.] people, who had not received [pi.] ... he uprooted and
dispersed" Aphr. 184, 3 (and construed frequently thus, as sing, and as
pi. [in the same sentence]) ; jdo^Ao <rfi. ^.j^&o "and the clergy sur-
rounded him" Ephr. HT, XLIII inf. [pi.] (usually sing.); <rfj^ i.^ all
oo) JjU "for all that land came" Sim. 322, 12; fcjj oot Jbfc*^. oi^i a^o
^jel !4oi "all the people ('tout le monde'), who were there, cried out"
Sim. 383, 13 (Cod. Land. faaa. o)\n Jko) ; ^al>- . . . JKL^o 6i^<ij> ,-d
ooo) "when the whole city . . . was sitting there" Land II, 65, 18; JLi^p,
nV >? M <T*-*i "ft- 1 ! 'V a i? J0 '! tL 4 s »? "what were left [reliquiae] of the
blessed band of the three thousand were crowned (suffered martyrdom)"
Moes. II, 71, 30; and many other instances. Even \\oam tij.1 & l'^
*t»|fra»*J "a third part (1 sg.) of her inhabitants" Jul. 38, 25— is treated
as a pi. masc. In the greater number of such cases, a plural, following
in the Genitive, or a o(^o, 6>ij>, placed in apposition, tends to effect a
plural construction, but yet the influence is not quite obligatory, of.
Atfji Jliuo {1} JLi oi^i (J6, "all this -host without number sur-
rounded it [Edessa]" Jos. St. 60, 6 (contrasted with JU^oo))'; JL£

§319. — 253 —

,oo(.X oow ojo^stf (OotJai.} "the army of the Romans, which was with
them, had dispersed themselves" Jos. St. 47, 20).

! IJL5iOJ» with a plural genitive is perhaps always construed as
plural, e. rj. *x>l ooSi ,*»». L.i6oV>» IJL^m "a large number of -Romans
(*. a. soldiers) lived there" Sim. 273 mid. (contrasted with ho.:*.; 'Msj - 10
ooiikio jooi *sJJ "the great mass of the people [Sing. Gen.] was alarmed
and terrified" Sim. 357 mid., and !&£.poj> 6)^50^ *-£>! "the great hody
of the town marched along" Land II, 388, 6, whore the Genitive determines
the number and gender). Similarly ^aS6» ^'jJ. ^> t-kj . . . oo5t ofc-*>
JiiXL=? "more than two thousand men perished" Ohron. Edess. (Hallicr)
146, 5 (Document of 201); <4&. «^ k«s !ki.J*>? ^o.»j?} li^aaj "the
most of the people of the town remained with him" Addai 31, 8. — ^0
with plural is construed as pi. only. With these are joined cases like
-po!o oj*>!} ,-sp ^i Assemani I, 357 (Simeon of Beth Arshain) ; ^ ^A
oU> "all who have come" ibid., and frequently thus ; but the sing, is more
usual here, and it occurs even in that passage.

§ 319. Even when the plural subject is resolved into its parts by n U r. in
means of jju ♦** (§ 242, cf. § 351), it may be construed as pi., and that „,a"™
even when it is itself omitted : *£ y^. k?k,aj Jxifo? ^j am i ^mv ^«
■ A^i ,£ A "these ten little books which I have written thee take from
one another" [». e, "are written in continuation" — "form a series"] Aphr.
200, 15; ^Ji . f.\ f£ "they plunder each other" Ov. 119, 16; ^t*?
Jj A Jj "wliich are different from one another" Spic. 1 7, 19 ; !fu a^f
— ooj ^k^jKbb ({^» &nia «w ypd<j>ifrai Kaff ft John 21, 25: ^.f °-°-o
of^Ja >, ~,iA ji f i "but they adhered to their several ways" Ov. 160, 21 ;
oooi , -s.ay J^i-jp ^otij ^> ji jJ "all our ancestors were humble"
Aphr. 188, 17; f Sa^A m' ^-4 A ft. f& IJ»j» *H <*^ t4^*°
"and these seven [planets] have each of them power [severally] over the
divisions" Spic. 18, 9 &c. (But also in the sg.: l& y-J ^oVup ifu Ifo
I pm o^la? iM}-^? o^ i ,Sa t "each of them, as has been ordered, it
(f.), quickly carries out his wish" Aphr. 281, 14, cf. Aphr. 438, 13; Ov.
176, 27). Similarly *AxJ> Ifo ^g tuft ifu a£j "^o "and all things
stand opposed to each other" Aphr. 303. ult— And thus even a simple
A Ji, Allu with a plural following, is frequently construed in negative

— 254 — § 320.

sentences as a plural : ,Jo<5t JJ ^w ^> |^u ^.oij ^och-.jujo "and among
these there is no single one of them" Spic. 14, 5 ; «£i. )j ^dai ffuo
on^aj "and no one of them resists his will" Aphr. 284, 4 ; jjC> ^oji-uj Jjj
^•'j • • • t^- 01 't^-^, ^ "that no one of these men . . . shall sec the
land" Deut. 1, 35 &c. Farther examples: Philipp. 4, 15; Philox. 543, 26;
Apoc. Baruch 83 (fol. 551 cult); John van Telia (Kleyn) 50, 18; Busel).
Ch. Hist. 260, 4 all inf. (But sing. e. g. in ^Jlt jf . . . ,.<3m3> J.^ "and let
none (f.) of them go out" Ov. 177, 11). Similarly in a conditional clauso:

S*£-^ ^ r^? °i^*i ^ !f" yV vrt-f- 4 " if ! W one oi the sto ™s
about one of .thy gods is true for thee" Anc. Doc. 55, 2 ; ■ .^.'. a^.j I
Jiot I 'hSM -oiaiU4 ^> fi "if one of the joys of this world takes him
captive" John van Telia 31, 1 (var. woia-aju). Except in Negative,
and Conditional clauses, I know of the occurrence of this construction only
' n (^■<&» ^> if" ^rcb-j "one of the maidens may come" Land III,
36, 18, and in y^^J ^Jij iJ^i^x ^V« ^> !f" P A > "why should
one of these maids wash thy feet?" ibid, line 19, which sentences are
translated from the Greek.

In the same fashion as with ^l» t-»-», we have also ~^aoo , ">~. ™n™
ooi ^. Pw )1^ "they are opposed, hut peaceful, the one toward the
other" Moes. II, 84 v. 127; JS&i. JS<* ooS ^B.nio "and they were at-
tached to one another" Moes. JJ, 100 v. 371.

r«p. „ith § 320. In the rather uncommon case, in which a substantive, de-

Substantive -. ,

». subject pendent upon a preposition, has the position of subject, it is construed
according to its gender and number. Thus in ot^j oot owSof ^.o
* J ? a ^* ^ '" i>a S M i&***i "and fartlier there is poured out to-
day of the spirit of Christ upon all flesh" Aphr. 122, 18 ; ^> ^.ciVup ,-j!
JSj-o( IfasoitX ,-i^i JJ ]U "even should some of the words not
agree with those of another speaker" Aphr. 441, 12. So also ^>o
p^e l$t* ta&ja oo« ^iai ^e n t vi . v "and from their eyes there
darted as it were quick flashes of lightning" Sim. 271 paen.; v>i on^i.
'm la *V? *W=> M* U»| "for with Mm there was sleeping m bod
the likeness of a woman" Sim. 292 mid.; U>V} l°&fi Jxij "something
like a flash of lightning shot down" Mart. I, 73, 6.

§§ 321. 321 b . — 255 —

§ 321. In other cases the verb agrees throughout with the subject, verb in
In particular a plural subject requires a plural verb. ( a ) It is no real with sutj.
exception to this rule that foot h^l may stand even with a fern, or pi. a the P ur '
(§ 304), for the properly-nominal character of the sg. m. k-f "existence"
still operates here. On the other hand there is an exception in the con-
struction, occurring occasionally, of the uninfected passive Participle
with \. indicating the agent, in conjunction with a feminine or plural
subject. In this case the language has begun to conceive the form t «Av
^ (§ 279) as quite equivalent to an active verb "I have made". Thus :
o^ y-Aah |^*ao;o (IsJU^qjmo "and hymns and psalms he made" Jos. St.
52, 1 (immediately after oj^. ^*&*as fj&^ari J-^»Jl»j "by whom many
poems had been composed") ; ^*o» *^- >&-oo*. "I have heard this"
Kalilag and Damnag 10, 16 ; 15, 23 ; jajaioo ^a**. ja.^ J*^!^! $» t'^ s
\\cl& j&j*. Jb&ijo ^ $<7roiyacc/*ev "hta&rjKYjV fxerd tov %/bov K.a.1 pLsrd rov
Qccv&rov avvtytcag [Is. 28, 15] Jac. Ed. in Wright's Catalogue 28 ab inf.,
and often thus in Jac. Ed. But here too agreement is far more usual.
Of like construction is (KxSa* jKaj;Ks ©*» a-Kao "and on it were Greek
characters" Jos. St. 66, 10 ; JS^xam J&oj yx+&a foot .a-Aa? jLAJ "where
the things had been consigned to writings and deposited" (Ps.-Eusebius)
de Stella 1, 18; t&£*^o&£ Jka^6v.a ^ot.Nv J6ot aAao "and upon them
were written hieratic characters" Ephr. II, 145 A (Jac. Ed.?).

Hem. The Singular-construction te J&£ ©*a sv atircp t^coy yv John
1, 4 (but different in C. after another division of the sentence) must rest
upon a dogmatic caprice, like the masculine use of lA^ao, when it signifies
"Logos". ( E )

Hem. On the Gender of Compounds cf. § 142.

§ 321 b . oi^&JL ia, literally "son of his moment" has wholly stif- ci^*, fa
fened into an adverb and stands unchanged with the fern., with the pi.,

(*) Of course orthographical inadvertencies of author, copyist or even editor —
when, for instance, ^* stands for the similarly-pronounced » V fi>, — can form no
ground for questioning this rule.

( B ) Thus J.£& !«& "is life" Joseph 804, 8 is perhaps correct. Philoxenua
(Budge H, OV, 11) ventures upon JUu ^u "one life".

— 256 — § 322.

and even with the 1 st and 2 nd Persons : k^oofy ojl^vi, ^a Jj-a*(o taxi &g
idS-yj <irctpa%p?i[JLa. (■% ywvj) Luke 8, 47 0. 8. (P. fj-uao), cf. v. 55 ; ^oj<5)o
o-ajL ojll. ^a ot^xii, \a ^*; "hut they withdrew, as soon as they saw it"
2 Mace. 14, 44; ^-y.t.s ''WLbo u-uib o)^^*, ^ -'they (the women) forth-
with washed themselves and painted their eyes" Ezek. 23, 40; &)KiJL ^ao
yLoA. 1$+jl s^avryjg ouv ^e/xipa wpog cs Acts 10, 33; wf$ otk:**, ;a "*t>t
forth immediately" Olem. 9, 18 &c. It is the same with oj.soo-. •*& : ^=»
fij^J oj^. oo» o^oo- "the same day give him the hire" Dent. 24, 15 ;
^l[ . . . o^io^ \a "we came the same day" Clem. 146, 32; c*&<^. ^.ao
6*Cl&A£. . . . "they took her away the same day" John Eph. 222, 1.5. —
So also &-{jKma •+=> oj^o) "they went backward" Gen. 9, 23.
Genaor ana § 322. When two or more nouns, connected by means of o or a

Number of

a Group of like conjunction, combine to form one member of a proposition, then, as
ooupisd regards concord, various cases become possible. If the members of the
lik^tto" * combination are all plural and of the same gender, naturally the
juration, connection is construed in accordance therewith. But when there are
differences in gender and number, it is sometimes the position, sometimes
the assumed importance of one or more of the members, that determines
the case. Besides, when several singulars are combined, they are some-
times treated as a singular, sometimes as a plural.

Singular: ^U^oo ^itl *a "our land and our city remained" Jos.
St. 31, 3 ; ■ ffcvcxojo J^af ^oi ***£& J|o "male and female are not dis-
criminated there" Aphr. 429, 1; JLuSo JZC^-_o feUo "and measure and
number are full" Spic. 12, 18; *-5)<ijLao w-qj oaaj ^?-ot "then went
forth Noah and bis sons" Aphr. 477, 9; f^l{ o^Jo oo* "he and his
seed were blessed" Aphr. 328, ] 6 : l\ol+f fc^ajy^ ©ia=»i K*ao — oi JL&oi
( "she and her father's house received an inheritance" Aphr. 329, 3 (and

often thus, when there is a principal person concerned); toot JjJLo &
|aao 1^.* "procreation and children are from nature" Spic. 11, 20;
l^m oj Jfo^l^-Ja "in winch troop or order?" Ephr. Ill, 245 D; <-^pto
^^oo |jlttij>o Jjl&j>o J^oJ Joot "and when . there was earthquake,
famine, pestilence and war" Jos. St. 1, 4; ^ooja^. N^a, jL&\.nt) U
l^alu^o ^^^^ " tm3re c ^ 110t ™ e m their Iwwt wrath or impurity"
Aphr. 428, 6; ,ob*V Ji*r9 J**4 tfof JWH? ^^?* " t,ult quickly grief

§ 322. — 257 —

and. regret of soul overtake them" Sim. 388, 14; «o) ^.(o jaa^J oo) yjf
^^iptLj Jumuucc JJ Jbfc^a Jla£^,I* "that such a savour anil such a sweet-
ness cannot be set forth in the world" Sim. 272 ad inf. ; K-^fiv* JLsold
xr^-^ "^lX ^oc^aoxj JL^^ii o^jJj^o . . . cxLjLu? fJ^a-pa tloa-tii
*QJi toot t^jaiu "how much more must near association with Iiis look,
ami. his charming converse with them, have incited them to all that is
good" Ov. 199, 14.

Plural: ,ojoio o©i ooot ,^Sij*iioo "and he and they spoke" Sim.
340 mid.; ^sooto ja-^a t^*^- v6o£*. o-aaoi (*) "Patricias and Hypatius
returned thither" Jos. St. 54, 3 ; e^oi ft-- 1 - ^nssJ °l x$ ^f" 30 ^ ^°?^J
^o»ib^ju ooV&i!^L& Jlsf ^-^cl^ljxiIJ ^-^aoJj "but avarice and covetousness
[JM, 'love of money or longing alter possessions'], the which are alien to
our course of life, shall not even he named" Ov. 174, 11; |i=uo JK-jo|
^ojf ^'Qjyf "the Law and the Prophets are too little" Aphr. 24, 3 ; oj ?^opb|f
I j . & . ^v ^. It^^-J "of maid-servants or men-servants out of the laity" Ov.
174, 1 ; Jj-^t^o oooi J»^o (ioaj "Deborah and Barak were leaders" Aphr,
4.81, 12; ft-u-o! ^.'ft-^-* ji^Lo J^> "wheat (f.) and straw are mixed to-
gether" Aphr. 152, 10; — oo» ^i»Ka» JLwoi? {KA^jlLo frcLiojioo "and
psalms and. spiritual songs were brought into service" Sim. 392 mid. (Cod.
Loud, ooot ^.jco Kmx>) . — ^q. oSfr, ,-ob,~o Jf^J?o f'y *iv* P. U. ( v a_aja^b t .,o4 S.)
o't reX&vcci iced ai vropvai npo&yovaiv ujxag Matt. 21, 31, el'. 32; i3.mo->
^ocx-Vl otl^a'o ja-fipo "Joseph and Mary his betrothed, both — " Aphr.
472, 20 ; ^qj! o>£*. ?JL-,l.£\. (Oot-^j ^> ^^jt-aJ; ^-J JbiaJLo tsls of Jbo^js t*i=i
"those under vows, of either sex [lit. 'sous of the covenant or daughters
of the covenant'], who have fallen from their grade, send ye into eonvents"
jOv. 218, 19; ooo) t**L&ip <jq\&X . . . — 5)<i^2>o t-^^ ■—qioj-^o.xp "for
fiiis works and words (f.) were profitable to every one" ( )v. 178, 22 ; {(jxia^.o
^^i ? o (jo_i' ^po+s ^^J*. fK^.x.o JUxoo "and the lire gains the mastery
jjbvor the grass, reeds and brushwood, and they are consumed" Aphr.
jjl.6, 1.2; ,00^ ^V"? ^ L ?? ^fPh ^h 30 J^J^ J^ *? "gold and silver
fend precious stones, with which the building rises" Aphr. If!, 13 (where.
She two masculine singulars preponderate over the plural feminine) &c.

(- 1 ) "Write tlio verb thus in accordance with yoo.^.

The differ-

— 258 — §§ 323. 324.

Of. farther ^ix, yX ,4j{ <d*4? !v«s? *H h^ /V " s,ml '' a " K t0 U "'.'|
and body, that thou shouldst take pity upon fliom, so Ions' as tlioy endure"
Quotation in Barb. gr. 2, 15 nit, (where at first the member staiidhiK at 1,1m
beginning exercises its influence, but afterwards, in the pi., Uio in. predo-
minates). The case is the same as with o, in ^p- ^ ^.i. rrW-^' ^°- a
6ti <^?XJU> (^4-"} "all the lusts, together with all the hriavs of sin,
are burned up therein" Ov. 164, 13.

§323. In ranking together nouns of different persons, the 1" |>vo-
( i£*™°" ponderates over the T" and 3'", and the 2'"' over the it" 1 : Mlo y^ PI
3rd) when ^y J^^j (') "I, thy lord, and thou, the steward, know [1" pi]" Ov.
together. 303, 13; owo Ji{ ^jcloo "and we rose up, I and he" .los. St. 2!), 13, el.
fine 10; )il amfa — lc^\»o )!! "I, with my-kingdoni, a,m free from guilt'
Jul. 70, 12; Ki! umZx> y\n 5\v.o ftJj ft?//. 132, 10; ^oij fc~=o Ml
^-~; ' "thou and thy father's house shall serve [2 ml pi.] Ajdir. 272, 1".
The exception ,-4-J JJsip yi^oi JIo &J| )|o onfooi ^o y^^? ^
^. ^JLi-S h w-a*» "neither thy king nor his command, neither thou nor
thy power, nor even our chastisements, are able to separate us" Mart. .1.,
15B, 8,— has nothing remarkable in it, seeing that the T" person in this
case is put between two 3 rd persons.

ARRANGEMENT 01? WORDS.

ro.ition of § 324. A. The relative arrangement of the principal pavt.n of the son-

ana Pred. tenee is very free. The Subject in the Verbal sentence, — just as in I. ho
Nominal sentence, stands sometimes before, sometimes after the Pre-
dicate; and sometimes its parts are even broken up or inverted by
parts of the predicate. ( 2 ) It is of coarse granted that in purely Verbal
sentences, particularly in simple narration, the Predicate stands more

( 2 ) How freely worda may be arranged in Syl'iftC, in well (leinonnl.nil.eu' ltd
comparing passages of Syriae with Arabic translations of them. The Aral) in that
case is continually obliged to alter the arrangement of tin! words, while the Nyrijirl
in alaioBt every instance might have chosen that arrangement which is absolute!;!
binding upon the Arab.

§324- - 259 -

frequently before the subject; but this is by no means a fast rule —
apart even from the fact that, if a new subject of importance appears,
or if the subject has to be brought emphatically into notice, it is more
usual to place the subject first. Also in sentences with the participle,
the predicate perhaps stands oftener before, than after, the subject. But
in purely Nominal sentences the reverse is the case. Still even the pre-
dicative adjective very often goes first, particularly in short secondary
sentences with ^o. It is farther to be noticed that, in the most diverse
kinds of sentences, demonstrative pronouns are commonly placed at the
beginning. In none of these cases do absolutely unbending rules prevail;
and a Syriac sentence can scarcely be imagined, in which the position
of the subject, relative to the predicate, might not he altered, without
offending against grammar'. Even the rhetorical effect might in most
cases be preserved though the order were changed, perhaps by adding
or omitting an expletive word like oe). The diversity of arrangement in
sentences standing close together has often indeed a rhetorical purpose;
but not seldom the same thing has been brought about quite uncon-
sciously. Instances of all forms of arrangement might be adduced in
abundance. It will suffice, however, to illustrate merely the leading cases
by supporting-passages, confronting them with one another.

B. Verbal Sentences, Perf.: ^->-; ^.po )iuaa5 o« oii. v»! "the
blessed St. Simeon said to him" Sim. 271, 13, immediately following o«
°*V **?! v diJa * -!■* ¥"*% *! iud - !. 3 (where, however, Cod. Lond.
reads '^ ooi o^ po!o) ; Ife^aX Aiaj k^^xj. oSS "if the soul abandoned
the body" Moes. II, 90 v. 221, beside jk . feaSt uaaj -^ ■ ■"■ oS. i'if his
power abandoned creation" ibid. v. 222; — jLull lw^,f ojv^io "and the
power of God appeared" Aphr. 25, 1, beside Joi^f ~)V . r. wju>l.( line 4,
cf. line 6 ; e*X ^al{ lj Jjspdsaj} ooto "and he, on whom the law had
not been imposed" Aphr. 25, 9, close to Jlajiuai ^mUJ JU ^l^i l.s. -
"and on their righteousness the law was not imposed" 1. 22 ; k^a ojft.
'M vit-^P ^*?° <Sr°¥ "destroyed is our sanctuary, and our house of
prayer is laid waste" Aphr. 491, 1.— Imperfect: y-fi-JLa; J&j j^^JU;i
1 *^% , *J «P?» "for it pleased the Lord that by thee his name should be
glorified" [lit. "the Lord willed that by thy hands &o."] Sim. 270 mid.,

- 260 - §32 4 -

close beside !W; ? !^j (ifbolo iibo^J ^ai-jpU y|*J&t "flutt by tl.y
hand the laws and ordinances of the holy Church he maintained" ; o^jSpo
o^aiU*-}* ot^j -oio-Joito ci&Ss; JWofo colH "and let his mind
glow 'in the spirit of his God, and let his praying comfort him in Iris
loneliness" Ov. 185, 12.— Participle: oo) Lflf )Ui=» «oi£m|k*=>! . . .^»
JUia -fv* jiijo JLsJL? ^%. ^f-* v* 1 ^ 1 ^ " kuow ■ • • tllllt "l""' *'"'
foundations of the building the stones arc laid, and then upon the stones
the whole building rises" Aphr. 6, 14 (and quite similar in 7, 1) ; ^A
ilali-oi JIJA. IWAJ ^o^Xqji "all these things faith demands" Aphr.
9, 10, alongside of jUufco | A-.y i N °^ t^= >toS ' ^r 1 ^ t^* " mi tlll ' s "
works are required for the king Christ" 1. 12 (where the logical paral-
lelism is set above the grammatical, as often happens) ; ^Joii ^S-joi
..a,";.* ^j.jo "destroyed are our priests, and our head is veiled" Aphr.
491, 1. — That the verb may also stand a long way after the subject, is
shown by cases like (i-Jfi. JL»*>°°1»' ^ «>&£ y^»l? a&i juiiaSii-
j n. j.;A\i ^a, j-k* "Jovian, who was Roman Emperor after him, pre-
ferred peace to everything else" Jos. St. 8, 17.

C. Nominal Sentences: yi*> J^»o Jjioi-j Uaj*. "heaven is small
and filled with thee" Moes. II, 80 v. 75, beside ((o J iEiSs yi. ia±.)
iUVLI wS*. ri»-> "small for thee is the world, and the parts of the earth
are not sufficient for thee" v. 77; ^> !jou» oio jJo>a> £ Slj-so )A»*.
o^^j J~. ~^^ "the sun is more excellent than the moon, and greater is
the moon than the stars which attend it" Aphr. 434, 19 &c. In oi
oot Japcrt JEft^ ■ & \LZ "a powerful commander is fasting" Ov. 99, 19, the
subject is postponed in an unusual way, to obtain rhetorical effect.

D. The position of !ooi results, to a certain extent, from § 299.
Apart from certain cases like those noted in §§ 260, 261, 300, it generally
follows the most important word of the predicate (cf. even l&oppi^. tff^j-
"to become servants" Ov. 311, 24); thus it often appears, along with such
word, before the subject. It is not common to have it placed at the very
beginning, as it is in ^si , m wotoft^ i^iw ooot "Canaan's children bo-
came slaves" Joseph 43, 4 [Ov. 290, 12]; !jja> ujja l^i.v ,boo(J) "thai
free persons become servants" ibid. 42 pacn. [Ov. 290, 8].

E. "We have already had cases, in which the subject appears in the

§§ 325. 326. — 26] -

middle of the predicate, v. § 312. Tims: (^Ss> ^Ao |i£»juoj "that we
ai'o Clod's servants" Ov. 173, 18; JULa *^a n">, oot |LJ "it is a weapon
against the wicked one" Aphr. 44, 2; |i^. lo! JiaAi; "since thou art a
greedy dog" Mart. I, 183 mid. &o. The reverse happens in fc-j ^.j Iwpl
^viv ot. io o)^- ooot "he had, however, believing parents" Mart. II, 268.

§ 325. The Object stands most frequently after the governing word, portion of
but often too before it, v. § 287 sqq. Even in the case of the Inf. with^.,
it is not uncommon to put the object first, v. § 293. In these cases, at
bottom, there is a true Involution.

S 326. In simple, plain speech adverbial qualifications most fre- p»»tt«n of

" i ' j. i * Adverbial

quently follow that leading member of the sentence, to wdiich they spe- Quoiuica-
oially belong, e. p. J^Qt^p **^- a - 1 -t§-*? t-° "when they came to the altar"
Sim. 272, 8, but often too they precede it, a. g. lj°v^ Of! « '^*~> °
u^»^*.{ "and he had been initiated [had been made perfect] in the
whole Divine mystery" Ov. 165, .16; ,j^.jf <°°oi^ JLiJ? JanJ ^> "from
intercourse with women ye shall keep yourselves separate" Ov. 173, 24;

v hn\ foop "while not even about simple fare for the due supply of
nourishment to the body, shall ye take any trouble" Ov. 174, 8; ^
V,«\ j ^*"~ ) A ? i\ » "whoever expects to enter into rest" Aphr. 107,
18 &c. The position of adverbial qualifications may often be of extreme
variety, particularly when several occur in one sentence. The simple
sentence Ii.yi fl ^K>^> JL6ji» "the Creator prepares the wine", Epkr. Ill,
663 A, permits of five other arrangements of the words, which arrange-
ments are all good Syriac; only, in this case, just because of the antithesis
to I ' A ' ■'■ "the host", — which opens the next sentence, it is most con-
venient to put the subject first, and the placing of the object hist comes
readiest to hand. "With the adverbial complement, {#*£> *$&% J-!6^a
J.<ii /.J oj^ "the Creator prepares the wine in the vines", the number
of possible arrangements is very considerably increased; but, provided
that the genitive association of JLiaa^a^. is kept together, all other
conceivable interchanges of position are permissible, although the placing
of the words JUiso„ a^» in the very beginning of the sentence, for

— 262 — §§ 327. 328.

instance, would give them a special emphasis (winch does not suit the
context in Ephv.).
roBitjon of § 327. There are several Particles which can never stand in the

Particle* beginning of the sentence (v. § 155 0). Their proper place is immedia-
tely after the first word, yet they may also take a place farther on; of.
|tqjJ; o'inN J V . '^-t JAm **^ 6£>j. tfoot (oas "for the blessed old man
longed for the position of confessor" Jul. 55, 21 ; (C. S. aol) —5 ^oofv *»(
Jjfc^o *a| tkeyev o£ ffapccjBoXyjv avroig Luke 18, 1 ; tmojuXoi Jn ■ ii.?o
JfJliX ot^aj ja^. oua; JSo)i ofj...; — wofjje. "and the impious Julian
through him sacrificed himself in fact to the demons" Ov. 160, 1-1. In
Moes. II, 122 v. 703 sq., joij. stands twice at the end of a short sentence,
and at the end of the verse. Still, these are exceptions. We have seen
in §§ 208 A, 240, that these particles may break up the chain of both
genitive and prepositional connection. Thus they may he interposed even
between the preposition and the relative clause governed hy it: pfi>
J^§-"i> 1—^ "for before he sinned" Ov. 81, 8; Jo^Jti *^? *& "hut after it
was finished" Sim. 283, 11; f ^ ^^> "but because" Jos. St. 7, 21;
80, 20; Ov. 169, 24 &c. ; even ,.? ijL,? ,& "but after he saw" Ov. 168, 8;
,»} Jooi; <& "hut after he was" Sim. 269, 6 (otherwise, in Cod. Lond.) &c.
Thus too with ^i: .ami ''Mr*-? V*^^ ^ "for every one, it is said,
•who asks, receives" Ov. 102, 14. Of. also the usage in other relative
clauses : o»^^A "^gif **^ t?P "^ or whoever has eaten of his body"
Apbr. 222, 3; ^aaij ^.--ooi ^»p '•^i "thus every one, who hears it" Jos.
St. 66, 21 &c, as set overagainst ojjjplj i-^jul; y> "for if any one
draws near" Aphr. 7, 2; Jiaj ,.} JtS^Sivj ^ksof "but when God wills" Spie.
20, 23 &c.

B. SPECIAL KINDS OP SENTENCES.
NEGATIVE SENTENCES.
J) and ii. § 328. A. The simple negative JJ is mainly employed in giving a

"dp™"' negative meaning to the verb, and then usually stands immediately bo-
fore it : } woiojui ""; ■{ (/ "his people were not able to ... " Aphr.
210, 17; } Vl^ ^(- i**i I'fin )} "it was not ordered the Egyptians to"

— 264 — § 328.

emphasis then falls upon the word immediately following the negative.
Examples : (loje+ao $ omi JL*3*=» ^& loot JJ ^*; JjJ sy« Si oi) 7r#p« avdpa-
qtov tyjv fjoxprvpiav Xanana John 5, 34; v»tJ t^J-^ °^ vravreg //iv ov
KoijuyS-yaOjUsQa, 1 Oor. 15,51; oot koap o^, Jjoi (Lo^p "tins death is no death"
Mart. I, 245, 8; (o£^j oo> ot£=^ JJ[ o5) Jo£Ss oV "he is not God, hut
God's servant" Sim. 327 inf.; oo> (fc^ o^j "who is no shadow" Moes.
II, 166 v. 1392; j|^*$ ud| otK*I^jaao (oot JJ • • • ? (?©t "this circumstance,
that . . . , is not that winch sets forth the truth" Ov. 163, 8 ; (oo> Jl? ^^>
JLaoooVfX llaAj JJoot ^oo^oa ""because not in their murder lies
victory for the Romans" Jos. St. 70, 2; loo) Jbodsaj J^i (oot JJ j_&
"while she was no ohserver of the law" Aphr. 48, 18; K*Ji*o.*, (oot JJj
JL&it uji'a ^»;a$£c& "that men are not equally guided" Spic. 12 vlt.\ JJ
(ooi lax; o*4*k*ap Jl[ (6ot ;_.ja JhJa_^fcv3 W^ (oot "for the word was not
trifling, but he who applied it was hut small" Aphr. 165, 9; ,-f loot JJ
JSl *^^a_» Jui»»a-3j ^ootloijLu^ "the freedom [freewill] of the Persians I
do not however deny" Jos. St. 6, 18; Jtf( uaai JJ U^-wj ^ (oot JJ "it is
not from fear that I do not go forth" Jos. St. 89, 22; »t£o^ ^ jq^ q^j
ooi Jlai i^-km£' "that this treachery was by no means brought about at
his instigation" Jos. St. 12, 17; ^itii^Km JS-Jta.^ o\; "that aro not
well cared for" Moes. II, 68, 12; JJJ JJ^9-=> ;n »Vy o^ "not only with
murder, but also" Moes. II, 65, 23, and thus frequently . . . jo-uJISa o^,
or even ?o<uV% . . . o^., cf. )J| JLSj-oa^ Jjo* (oot III ;o«Aa w.ot»6jJ loot JJ
"not merely to Odessa [Orhai] came this edict, hut" Jos. St. 26, 9;
^»^sX a-\.% $&\ ^4-^? Ji^ooka ^*^> o_\ "for not in confidence that
they would return to life did they proceed thither" Ov. 170, 2; {oot J)
oiu^ kJ l&s.nfyflvt (^f*l "he has no foreknowledge" Aphr. 130, 1;
w.501 ^oV^-l {&£»& oA. "not dumb were they (1)" Moes. II, 102 v. 393
(in both of which cases, with re -arrangement, '&-( JJ, 'K*X might also
have been used, &c). Even when complete clausos take tlio place of
parts of a sentence, loot JJ, or o_X is found: . . . JjjL*J o+^-*( ^» jd^jj oX
;<uAa *-*§t[ "not merely did he manifest his diligence in uprooting the
tares out of his land" Ov. 192, 19; Ji^a JoVafi^Jtlf oi^, "I do not seek to
boast" Ov. 138, 6; ^oj{ ll^. «-jl=» ob». t-^a» ^ n . :»*; "^4§jo clXo "and
it is not because they are distant as regards the body, that they are no

. 328.

— 265

sons of the Church" Ov. 121, 8 (where tlio two a\ are regular); af|
^ w <*5t ..jp ^j^Jj \4» low P ^ota ^*>H? <$-& "that even those
things, with which we lire satisfied, fall to our lot, not because we have
pleasure in them" Spic. 10, 18 &c. So po£ ^ JSf "A? g, oi>. "he
said not 'I do not open to you'" Frothingham, Stephen Bar Sudani 18, 1.
Even before the Inf. Ahs. they come in: v fXii» ?6-"^a °f-V«? low V
"not merely do they bring forth" Spic 11, 7; ow <£±.\%.uf u^ )if^»
^.JUao ol£jL«3> fooi D ^JKjjo "for teachers are asked questions ; they
do* not put them" Spic. 1, 18"; lii^^ -^r* l°w H? " tllat the tnief does
not know" Aphr. 129, 13 ; ,ooCi. JS? >a»i- jim^o oi^j "that I do not
calumniate them" Euseb. Oh. Hist. 315, 6. So ibid. 180, 9.

C. The simplo V, however, is retained in several cases. It seems
always to stand thus in prohibitive sentences, e. g. |Iw>a£; Js6jwa=> W

owtv? -*?»*> JLjl! ^oooti "the brethren shall not, on the pretext of illness,
forsake their" cloisters" Ov. 213, 17 ; Jlioro Jiji ol J{&j ^o^. Do

6-oloAojj) ot^otjo,. vcii>j "and tidy clothing, or sleek raiment, may not
belittle the worth of your abstinence" Ov. 174, 14. And so, generally, in
all modal relations,— thus D> "that . . not", "lest" &o.

D. Farther, in repetitions like j n . m-j otyrt'fl Do J^aj. wLJ" |)j
ofi. tv-l (^"v* V»f Do " tlle appearance of which is not good, nor the
taste agreeable, and which has no pleasant smell" Aphr. 307, 19; (I
*1* a|j looM k'i»h V° &&t* a "neither among those who have gone
before, "nor among those who may come after, will one be found who is
greater than thou" Sim. 270 inf.; Jlo Jt^.? XoA. «j ^W> !$ta£ Ho

Hiap v 6w^ l&>- ivsrf? H^-oJt, »° PF* 5, li ^ Si ! ^°* i Hf M "™ a

riches are not found except with a few, nor power except with one or
two individual men; neither is bodily health found with all men" Spic.
10, 2; yfl. 0501 <.iukio <~^ Do ^ V JL^ °i !|j *i»*° " and soiled
or shabby clothes wore not to be seen at ah, either among or upon them"
Ov. 203, 10; l^ma Do ).*>«•?■ -w&fJA low *)La D "on Ms hands there
remained neither skin nor flesh" Sim. 281 mid., and many such instances.
B. Again, in elliptical speech, such as simply JJ "No", and in cases
like . -V"-^ ,-l^. ^*k» ^oVixiao "and with some of them we are
satisfied, and with others not" Spic. 10, 19; D, ,!? "hut if not, then . . "

— 266 — §§ 329. 330.

Aplir. 441, 7, and in other passages; V ^ —"J-^-? "quod utinam non
(fiiissct)" Assem. II, 44?) (Pluloxonus) ; Jlo %Ka Jbals ^=>^ ${
]j r.i^v.^ "I have written for those who are amenable to persuasion
[sons of persuasion], not for scoffers" Aphr. 441, 8; ^oo^-jjam ^-i JJo
Kat ov% w£ oi ypa^/iarsig aurtiv Matt. 7, 29; and, in a similar \ise, the
word often occurs.

I\ Again, it constantly presents itself in certain combinations, like
Jlai, J(J(, JU; "without" (and "that not", "lest", ne). So in Nominal com-
pounds like Ra*& P "immortal"; it,a t \i M ^o j) atj)Scxps/a 1 Cor.
IB, 63 &c. ; also in cases like )in.^>% Jlo (|^"3> &>*? °l "O foolish and
unintelligent people!" Mart. I, 113 inf. So too jJ! )l "no one", pfio (I
"nothing".

G-. Here and there occurs also Jl for looi )) or o^. Thus )}
^x>>l ily^-1 ii^-^ "did we not cast three men?" Dan. 3, 24; V?^" C
,iaj^ . . . o JL^jo^oo "did not the Egyptians and the Moabites and
. . . oppress yon?" Judges 10, 11 (and that the fact of interrogation
in such cases does not necessarily call for |), [instead of looi J)] is
shown by JjyoMJ v 6.-i^. ooV. JL«.ai looi II ov Mqvotjs IsZhkev iifiiv rov
Wl*w\ John 7, 19); looi <jupK*» pp«> (Spj? |k -i;ivj-» ))o "and there
was nothing else reverenced in the vehicle" Moes. II, 166 v. 1397; u
^So^p ;n M>>a J* i "^~ s ; "not merely men do they injure" Spic. 12, 7 ;
JX^otco Iv-SsJ 'f*i ?" JU -*J 9 "not merely she who commits adultery is
put to death" Spic. 15, 20; ^>J>k*i )J looi -o)«^-| wotof nxNy ^J<> )lo
"and he did not, because he was alone, remain unheard" Aphr. 70, 8 &o.
These sentences are not all free from a suspicion that the text has been
tampered with; and this suspicion applies with special force to the words
koaj ))} UpL.l[ <£>- "she was not born, but came forth" Ov. 403, 22,
where in a way quite unusual o2*. stands immediately before the verb.

§ 329. II and its strengthened forms looi |), oA. can never come
after the word to which they most directly refer. In the simple Verbal
sentence, for instance, JJ must stand always before the verb.
Douw« § 330. That a double negative may even in Syriac have the force

of an affirmative, we have seen in several examples which embody
restrictions ; cf. farther V ja ^a o^ o^ . ^ ; "H?lft 'l^i 11 * £ l-^ 6 ^-

Nogntlvi

§ 331. — 267 —

^oj! j^,. "for not only did he not deprive them of a share in the alms
of liis beneficence" Ov. 195, 1 fa But, iu particular circumstances, there
may lie attached to a negative sentence another V .sl d , with a noun to
he specially negatived; or the negation of several things may he ex-
pressly specified, alongside of the loading negation: J-V'? ^*^- ^ , °
fL lial *~aJl! II "and of the race of the monks not even one was injured"
Jul. 26, 13; Jl .£>!, 6f>* >of*> )lo pt*> V &{ 6f»- "Vi^» V W^,i^-i5-
Irai W >s! J « -y "for nothing whatever proves a hindrance to prayer, and
neither sword nor fire brings it to perplexity" Ano. Doc. 104, 25 ; Jiot^&&
^imj uia; IU^- }■*"$ ^> (Js! ^»°ii V "therefore he did not evon take
his eyes off the stiff-necked people of the children of Israel" Ov. 194, 26;

^> ^a-^f (I J;""^ J 10 «^° " v?*^' '!*"■ " tll ° trutl1 ot om " God '
neither in our life nor in our death, do we give up" Mart. I, 186 mid. ;
Jljif £ |lo J;Vy ^> )l owU ))o ^i?t V "be not thou afraid nor alarmed,
either before kings or judges" Sim. 300 mid.; "in such-and-such lands
lie. . . . |lo . . . Jlo l-fjs J)o JaidXL V !W> >»■>! V no man sees sculptors, nor
painters, nor . . . nor ..." Spic. 17, 4 &c. In all these cases other modes
of expression might also he used, of. o. g. (jot wtifij. pfi Jlo ]S{ "but this
brought Mm no help at all" Bphr. II, 212 B.

INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES.

§ 331 . A. In Syriac thore is no special syntactical or formal method Jjjj^
of indicating direct questions, as to "whether" the Predicate applies to moo..
the Subject. Such interrogative sentences can only bo distinguished from
sentences of affirmation by the emphasis. loVS>, oo) o* may mean "God
is great", quite as well as "Is God great?".

B. The special interrogative words (which onquire about the subject
or its attributes or other relations, or again after individual parts of the
predicate), stand mostly at the beginning of the sentence: -&5ii| JsSuj

Jaoap )|! Pff '%* " llow long M * tllou t0 kee:P 1 ' un ™ s ftfler w,iat neTer
stops?" Ov. 119, 10; "*J-a>S >^wj tsJjj^ p6W& oiao "whom hast thou
ever seen, that had grown rich and was satisfied?" Ov. 119, 11; (S-jJo
!)LJJ.u « tf~^ "and how did he mako luin to be sin?" Aphr. 134, 6;
l^f. (f^A.{ lf.(( "which religion is true?" Mart. I, 182, 6 fa There is

— 26R — | 332.

no essential divergence, in oases like i&t JUjfo (/foaa uj ^v f "^
; ^.J^oji "of what commands and judgments then did Ezekiel say
that . . .?" Aphr. 318, 11 ; .olsU^ !oo,f wK*>|j ja.fi. Sag wots lao/iai /u(r
iimv; Matt. 17, 17; Luke. 9, 41, and similar oases. But the interrogative
is frequently shifted farther on in the sentence; only it is never permitted
to stand after the verl> or the copula: 6£v. ^^ |i& JLsJLo _.<5j^ 6£»*
"what supports this stone?" Moes. II, 88 v. 182; to^f Jkiio! -SioVoio;
liWX ^ua*i oiao J-,^^! I&aj Jbalu "his constant exhortations to
the clergy under vows of chastity, who can recount?" Ov. 176, 14; j Mv^
loot p-tekJ lty$ $ also oiLajjynioj; !k=,j ^J "l m t to the mighty pro-
portions of his renunciation, which of the monks could compare himself?"
Ov. 184, 22; Kasu JU (LsbA. uai . . . j )^iiu "the blessing, which . . .
(long relative sentence), why lias it not passed from me?" Aphr. 469, 1;
k-l )Ks JLSao*. ,£> ^^X "above the heavens what is there?" Aphr. 496, 2;
K> * V^ - i^ ■ ' ■ '' ' •*> &9-J ^•oji'^ tj^-oi "how can tliis apply to Saul?"
Aphr. 342, 17; |L| 6*au^ "what is her race?" Moes. II, 110 v. 538;
Icpjal (LJIo Hi Xs,^jo JUiif JisJ "wherefore and to what end is the face
of the lion?" Moes. II, 104 v. 431; ,oo^&J oi»! Jb>KS ^Xoi "whose
are these books?" Sim. 269 inf. &o.

For sentences with J&S, v. § 373.

2. COMBINATION OF SEVERAL SENTENCES
OR CLAUSES.

A. COPULATIVE SENTENCES.

§ 332. Two nouns are strung together by means of o or o!. (') If
there are more members than two, the conjunction need only appear
before the last of them, as in J^ojiJp ^i. ^s.?™ il^Jjo Ji^j Jbj.S| "hind,
the vine, and the olive stand in need of careful attention" . Ephr. Nis.
p. 8 v. 91 &c. Two or more nouns aro combined to form one member of
a sentence, while the association of several vorhs properly constitutes, on

i 1 ) On at in comparisons v. footnote to § 249 E.

§ 332. — 269 —

all occasions, just so many sentences. But the grammatical sense :
no nice distinction between these cases, as is proved by the circumstance
that the same conjunctions are employed for both. The connection of
sentences, even with two verbs, is often very intimate, when, for instance,
both verbs have the same subject and object, and perhaps even the
same adverbial qualifications, as in a sentence of this sort: (lot "^jo
Jfcpo ifioKA. ik*£» ^clsvi m. "on this account Simeon founded and built the
house". Gentle transitions gradually lead to a perfectly clear separation
of the two clauses, as when I say : ^^joo imKi. !&— => , nvin« licx '^fco
f K .~\ wof-oo oc* hot "oil tins account Simeon founded the house, and
on this account he built the house". But only special reasons could
justify such a tedious mode of expression. In most cases, in which there
is a combination of clauses thus closely related in contents, some form
or other of Ellipsis will appear, even though the conjunction fall entirely
away. Thus also the proper verb for two closely connected clauses is
often omitted in the second position, even though number and gender
are different. The possible varieties of expression in such cases are very
numerous. Compare the following examples: "^=>ol Ju2-S». <2» o£v. oA-Llo
^jajUao «amo- [ot-^ °A-U] ^ij ^>o . . . o vi^M^.6 "and there were
born to him of Leah, Reuben, Simeon &c, and of Rachel, Joseph and
Benjamin" Aphr. 480, 8; [-Sot ^oj] ^o^alo !»oi y! iooi l*>j ^ooio^o
Iti.a.j^g. JUiiX) y»J "and their aspect was like fire, and their faces
like gleams of flame" Sim. 271 inf.; Mao JLaio uai (Sdiojsp ^aiii ooot
r s,\ ),] (i) JLi.jpp ,a{ -} H"» "the mon who are under vows [sons of the
rule, cauonid] shall learn psalms, but the women [daughters of the rule]
hymns also" Ov. 21.7, 18; [IJa] M° K . -itfv J-Ji X ita-M^? k<"°!
bjsj&ii} )*.}.= JL^ "haughtiness and pride do not beseem the lowly,
nor does a crown [beseem] the head of the poor" Aphr. 180, 15; io»j
^ojj [!oo>J] K*k» f^Sa [lootl] M-=> T ^i6t !(J^r=> "thy contemplation
may cleave to the dust, thy search to the mire, thy course to the earth"
Moes. II, 96 v. 328; p^io ooi JJf IU-f=» «.oa»j )) Jiaojjo )is.J? tlf^j.

O The same tome as that at the beginning of the clause could not stand
here (§ 290).

- 2 ™ - §333.

[fl^p !<"?>*] k<"*s f? !°^= (O^jAiomX *oaa» "wares for purchase
and sale must not be found in the convents, except that only which
suffices for their needs, without greediness" Ov. 213, 9; y^.-Ay qjo,
6,KiLa ^o p^iUj loo, J^aiW] v ; (,CH Iwoj, ^> v oj^Jm, V , 0o|
"those made every endeavour to free themselves from disease, hut this
woman [strove to free herself] from her evil doings" Ov. 103, 5; and
with ellipsis in the first position: ^otiKax* ^ojajU,] v oo,-=iJLaX <jj\oj6,
loo, Mfcmx. Wl ? wtss^sji) <;? (jot [oeoi "now to cure their diseases
those hastened, but this woman to cure her desires" Ov. 103, 3 Ac.
Thus also in parallel clauses, entirely unfurnished with any external
mark of union: J.o^. oorfKmlj 6)jX Ji-^JJ, yj (ua^o^ Jb>JL= ^ oA.
'*o oi^ i^aj, (JjSU* )J| o^a^j Jhaj^oX 6,i$!l, lUaJ J)J v ^ "for
not bodily pain constrained her, as it did the others, to hasten to our
Lord, hut the sting of her conscience, not the leprosy of her body but
the blemishes of her soul, not . . . &c." Ov. 102, 23 &c.

oSS" § 333 - WheU tlle first cla,lse is affirmative, and the attached clause

Sutouu. negative, ellipses occur of the kind mentioned in § 328 E. But when
the negation has reference to both clauses, it is either repeated,— in
which case the emphasised form described in § 330 may appear,— or
it merely stands once for all. In the latter case e! is more usual as
a connecting particle than o, unless the second clause is at bottom
rather an expansion or inference than a purely parallel clause. Sen-
tences with ... o ... » instead of . . . Jla . . . J): (if fca-uasoo J/! Jlxvi J)
? J*> VaS*. "I (f.) am not to bear and endure everything which" Spie.
3, 20; ^cM ^p^ o,te*4*o ^ox^s fJL«J *j)l (*) ^Am ^oo) V
ftojja ^jo v^X pjso "do not ye accept for any one a forged letter
(<j>d\aov falsum), and do nothing on that account beyond justice" Ov.
220, 10; ^fo v oKiJ ^jS^ai J) »y OU are not to take and go" p. e. "you
are not to cany off"] John Eph. 399, 15; M**a spoilt. JL^Ll JU "do
not sin. and speak evil of me" Mart. I, 75 inf.- X^jlo Jboil yja flo
"and by no means swear falsely [lit, "swear and be false"]" Ephr. II,

O V. § 260.

§ 334 — 273 —

337 E ; <-A-a*"? J**" ^ i*i*2k.o;^i6 - %qa uviv ^-u.aJL )J "search not in
nic for my faults, so as to requite me as I have deserved" Ephr. Ill,
522 33; ^m\ f*=^- loo/Ho wJLa-oj ^» wjjio Jbootl JJ "turn not away
(thine eyes), Lord, from my wretchedness, and let me not "become a
servant of Satan" Ephr. Ill, 523 A &c.

"With of: jK*i-ii >4^£J.L oj ^X i^ot JJo "and grieve not or he
desponding in thy thought" Sim. 301, 4 (God. Lond. otherwise); and
many similar instances. Of. |9o?-£i>t JbaUdO i*iio )jjao.ii»o J.*uu> ^oootJ )J

JjLi?! J^*K» ^aiotKaoo Juj v ooi^ *;l-^j \OOop ootj "Priests, Deacons, and

men under vows shall not he curators or agents for laics, or take charge
of the lawsuits of their own relatives, or undertake for hire the conduct
of the suits of any one whomsoever, or be in constant attendance at the
door of the judge" Ov. 218, 8. In this example several prohibitions are
comprised, in part by means of o, in part by o(, while only a single ne-
gative is expressed. Of course the negative might have been repeated
once or oftener.

S 334. A. In several of the sentences quoted above, the connection copuiati™

° , , Sentence

effected "by o has figured as a somewhat inexact mode of signifying a for * con-
relation, which is not quite identical with the one given in the first n0OUB oirm
clause. Such an "and" is also found sometimes when a consequence, or ™*JJ^ M
a contemporaneous accessory circumstance, is dealt with: t^oo* *^±-l <*& Con8 '

* ' nup.nc

^■^■•s. JLpfo "what should I have done, to hinder the sun?" ZDMG
XXX, 117 v. 235; toj kaajbo <-i.uj| ^Ji^il <S»j> JLaji "whither had we
all withdrawn ourselves, that thou didst arise?" Joseph 227, i [Ov.
312, 12] ; (l^o h">> ,Jp >»»;l.kao )lo Kcu«. "^. o p?i~> )a.osfi.o "and to
him who has set his huilding upon a rock, whereon it is not swayed
hy winds and waves" Sim. 395, mid.; 1^'*?? ! V . '\nn lio ^v.) P»!> J*>aa
"the mouth wliich said "God", at which the reins of beings created
trembled" Ov. 138, 24; ]io^> \)i» p-V»? J*-'! "■»! "the curtain which
the priest raises and (through which ho then) enters" Apost. Ap. 176, 18
(Gnost. Hymn) ; ^a^qju) — Wo l^ovX -asis yj "as he produced

(') V. § 64.

queue a.

— 272 — § 335.

(water) to Hagar, whereof Ishmacl drank" Apia.'. 314, 6; ^o£*--s ^ \,oi
uA. £o|» )Jo <+s±+aS* jJL^o^ K=»Ka; . . . "all this that I have written I
have reminded thee of, beloved, without being wearied" Aphr, 184, 5;
—o»a3^o uoiQ^xDi; »t^o "something which they imposed Upon him,
and "with which they vexed him" Sim. 280 mid.; {oot ».vriw JK**=i ^^fi-*
jJLL^rhX ja_s=ooo "l>y reason of the evil whieli he did, und (through which)
he oppressed many" Sim. 317 mid.; y^..V \w!^ao ^jfeca ^o ULaaX; "that
thou loave us with thy heart in doubt" Ov. 308 nit. ; fiuxsu *-6t JlJM {«
60a^. ha^\o "then went out that woman, having bread with her"
Acta S. Maris 45, 2. Instances of the latter kind, where the o in-
troduces a pure conditional clause, are rare in original waitings in
Syriac, as the more distinct *-3 is used for tins purpose.

B. To the verb *-&3, t-9-9 "to command" the execution of the design
is sometimes annexed, without the substance of the order having been
announced beforehand; so too with Jlaj "to wish", and occasionally with
other verbs besides: ^oj( a-aslo ^as "he gave command (to bring them
out) and they brought them out" Mart. I, 94, 8; Jbao otjo *-o3o "and
at his command water came" Sim. 353, 11; ^i* oiq^jia-o hat.a_X +&&
^ooikisKD "at his command the priests took it (f.) upon their shoulders"
Aplir. 265, 6 &c. (and thus frequently in the Document of 201 in the
Ohron. Ed.); ojuoiUo ^ao Jiaj "by the will of the Lord they w r ere deli-
vered" Sim. 295, 11; 1*oioj oju>o ypo ^oot-X ao^. "the Lord granted
them that they should see the light" Sim. 346, inf.; Jjiao w$„i.o "and ho
began (to build) and built (completing the work)" Land II, 107, 6.
oiosb com- § 335. Some verbs, winch express a quality, very often join the

twoVoHja specific verb to themselves in this way, by means of o. In particular wo
of ™na» k |lve *•$**& w t£°i "t° k e audacious", u^aof "to miiltiply": oo<» ^y^o)
^polo "who had the boldness to say" Mart. I, 19 inf. ; Lf»(o Kupol
"thou didst venture to say" Aphr. 82, 11; ,ootX fr-oo u^»t "ho called
often to them" Aphr. 503,4; u.^ao|o )»jL^"he threatened severely"
Jul. 64, 3 &c. Not seldom the impersonal **f^ "it befell", "it came to
pass", is dealt with in the same way, e. g. : Jt^^. • • **i*»JLo «*f^ "it
chanced that a man asked me" Aplir. 394, 6. Farther ^auiaio ^Aflooab
"they take in addition" Spic, 14, 18; ^JaXo atdoI JU "but ask no more"

§ 336. — 273 —

Simeon of Beth ArsliBm (Griiidi) 11, 4 — Kniis, direst. 44 inf.; jotf
-<uio "sliowed before" Aphr. 451, 9; ol^ooo oaofjb "died lioforo" Euseb.
Cli. Hist. 128 paen.; U*>1° !ooi ;ofij» "was said beforehand" ibid. 14, 14,
18; 275, 6 ab inf. (more frequently 7>(-b occurs in this application without
the o, § 337 A). In these cases, however, subordination of tho second
clause is permitted, and in certain' of them it is much more usual. Thus
along with the afore-moutiouod lv»(o JSv^sjoi, there occurs also oajo
po|j} Mu ^aab "who ventures to say?" Aphr. 430, 12, and po^<£»~ ^\x>{
"ho ventured to say" Ov. 196, 15.

8 336. In the case of two closely combined verbs, the substantive Gowo-

3 J mont of

Object, which is governed by both, needs to appear once only, § 332 (e, g. <»°h com.
og ?■* | >^jojo |U^! "that he reveal and make known lus mind Jul.
83, 9; JjuI ■■■~'^ ■ ■—- " jiJt\Q ^jyi "ho ennobled, elevated and glorified
the sons of men" Aphr. 336, 3, whore no fewer than throe verbs have
only one expressed object). Not only so, but an Object-suffix which be-
longs to both verbs is occasionally attached to one only: yuo o*-j-*-° y $v
"E^eXe axrrw mi flaks ama aov" Matt. 5, 29 0. (P. yjuo — f*.o ot-jjj ; >S.
ujaa 6^.**. ovg*>); *-o)oL»,o ouo "and they dragged and throw him
down" Aphr. 471, 12; ^oj! (loo i-^i "lamed and hindered thorn" Aphr.
330, 16 &o. And then, two verbs are often so intimately associated that
the government of tho one, which may not bo at all that of tho other,
operates for the entire combination, and tho object stands next to the
verb to which it by no moans belong: (uuo )o<?-QJ ). w . u»,iitti| jj>
"wliile he rises up and numbers the stars of heaven" Aphr. 199, 13;
wiio ^otxsa^^o ^oKov»t . . . Imi "tho cup ye have had tho daring to
steal from mo" Joseph 238, 9 [Ov. 318, 14]; ^.ota^i. wo_io p^o |}o»
"ho referred this to him beforehand" Aphr. 12, 3; o\> iv+Jj ^^jo
^oc-iN^; Jvi\j ^. )I-..S,~ JLttoot'V nvtm o "because tho Romans entered
and set up the eagle in the temple, together with tho image of their om-
poror" Ephr. II, 222 E; «*aa*aoo ^o*j JJa^o "and lie hastens to practise
iniquity" Isaac I, 266 v. 362 ; ovajjo ovi^ i JtSo^ J=»o^ "they hail
craftily dug mere pits" Land III, 257, 3; JL.kuik5»v JLl>j£ (kJ^ika JLuuo
^vo KAj ^$j^a "Moses, here below, brought himself down to tho
lower people in Egypt and prepared tho Passover" J5DMCJ XX VII, 571

274 — § 337.

v. 103 (of. ibid. v. 109); otUau JLljo )«4 "she comes carrying her com-
panions" (f.) Hid. 598 v. 274; and woioj-^ajn "V/Jo ocx ^^ "lie goes
bearing his deeds" ibid. v. 276 &c. Similarly too with the passive: oj'^o
<ui»}j|o )■ y* , "« ...» IJU^= <;? >»JU» "but many vessels of silver,
which ( — long relative clause . . . ), wore on a sudden sold at his com-
mand" Ov. 172, 20. Of. with Prep.: wt^iojlo Kj>) l i-»ni o "and I have
conquered him and have cast him into the grave" [lit. "and into the grave
I have concpiered and cast him"] Ephr. Ms. p. 106, 39.

§ 337. A. Syriac, however, very frequently indeed combines a pair
of verbs, set together without any connecting particle at all, (a) when
they denote actions which immediately follow each other or attend upon
each other, or (b) when the verbs are such that the one merely gives ex-
pression to a modification of the other. Examples : (a) .aJv. ^- v?^-f ^
"Gideon went in and made ready" Judges 6, 19; VJi •*>! Illj oo«->!?
..a\ "and if any man doth come and enquire of thee" Judges 4, 20; III
pj> iXSm icrd&Ti Matt. 2, 9 P. S. (G. )a.oo '!); c**. ops? 5 . °^ J wwomj
irpwsKVVTjOaii aura Matt. 2, 11 P. C. (8. 'a>o); ]i\ Jhvi M l« Spx<V«" "Qr/rw
Luke 13, 7; «v=>j pja "he arose and led him away" Ov. 162, 20; jiaj
l. '; .~~« "he went out and beheaded them" Mart. I, 122, 23; poo
!1 ^.w "up! go and come" Sim. 293 inf.; UjJ "^/)j? "that ho go and
pray" Ov. 163, 25; Jxil Im*J 1"*VI "that he go there and soo the land"
Aphr. 455, 3, and frequently thus with verbs of motion; ^^j> $ t i.
cmoarslka.; &vstksv Matt. 2, 16; ^ . jt\ oil^X -K.I i^A. "bo sent
and fetched his daughter to Nisibis" Jos. St. 89, 18, and thus fre-
quently ~kJ Sj* "to send for", "to fetch"; ^>- y Yimih '^aob ;-^)l
, \ Af .w«c pUao "for he does not cause us to enter and bo seated,
just for the purpose of rising and iniquitously judging (') us" .Joseph
205, 1; J«-^.^ J5u3u« f^u! "the world is laid hold of and abandoned"
Aphr. 458, 1. (b) lv»i k»j-D Kposlpyica Matt. 24, 25; -wolt-o onyi
"they named him before" Aphr.. 7, 8; JUi} (Oot-Ai. calal )!**{ W^Pr"
"for Isaiah placed judges over them before" Aphr. 97, 6; oow ,**>"££
^S)jJ "they had come beforehand" Land III, 350, 7 ; y^ao U pfjiuo

f 1 ) The last couple Jj **i. ranks rather under (b).

§ 337. — 275 —

loot "had boon promised before" Aphr. 26, 4, and many other verbs with
io£o and yips, and particularly in translating GtaoQk verbs compounded
with wpo- ; in passive forms like >-oj^K y**J* "had been pointed out before"
Aphr. G3, 18, or (more rarely) like i-jlkso jajjjt^o "is prefigured" Isaac
IT, 336 v. GOO &o. So too in another sense ( ojxooj ,n i f*i n ,» "that they
ascended in the morning (the next morning)" Him. 293 mid. — w^sj
o»*>po* aMn {msptlifKcaev Phil. 2, 4; oj. nn . ° *i .-^mi "strongly convinced
him" Sim. 279 mid.; y^Zi u^»l "loved mnoh" Ephr. in Wright's Cat.
689 a, 14; \&jitso &j{ JL^aio "thou spoakest a great ileal" Job 15, 4 &c.
This verb too (<*,^ol) is often put second: Jk^ot \S LCD Vz "thou heapest
up much treasure" Isaac II, 92 v. 67; J^£oi i^-j "abuse greatly" Joseph
213, 12 [Ov. 305, 8] (var. ji±.)1 J^o! "exclaim loudly") &c. (cf. supra
§ 335). — ^M,\gil^ao ^«»*™o. "they are farther cultivated" Aphr. 458,
1 &c. — Jb^ «*{-^ "be by chance forgets" Aphr. 296, 8. — Ji=> tfi. "he
built anew" Land III, 246, 14 ; p^jioU! l^ "was laid down anew" Land
III, 177, 27 — ii-Aso Jjj** "he begins again" Aphr. 439, 3 &c. — oooijjb
— 010&& "they buried him in haste" Ov. 207, 26 — hvf \ . oj > K\nt. Ij^-u
"she speedily gained health" Ephr. Ill, 554 E ; ot ^v oa o^jo I^jl ^a-ull
ipso— "he eagerly flung off every burden" Ov. 166, 7 — o^y **>$» "he
placed him in the midst" Ephr. Ill, 569 A — q^m. cu.ojlJ "they shot, in
corresponding fashion" Mart. I, 79, 12; and so too with other verbs,
particularly in translations from the Greek, like wAot, Ji^, t*i9, *a^i*
"again"; ;-uol "late"; -yioj "long" &c. Very probably in all these cases
other constructions might have been employed, for instance with o, or
with subordination effected by means of 1»- or j.

13. The construction of qwijU has a special ranking of its own in
this section: Of-o^. n ■■ w -f "they could draw out" ("they were able, they
drew out") Sim. 365 mid.; y-»j£ uaajuI "has (ho) boon able to save thee?"
Dan. 6, 20; and even negatively, ,oj{ fii oujjjl! )J! )<-?-! &rs fiyicirt
XCepelv Mark 2, 2 ; otnmfi uam.! (I "could not cut it (m.)" Mart. I,
129 ult. ; oM>fc» iiin«i J) "could not save him" Jul. 96, 17 ; U&&» IWa^l ))
"she could not cross over" Ov. 12, 19. Additional instances are found
iuEphr. (Lamy) 1,607 str. 19; 617 str. 1; 684 str. 18; Joseph 124, 8 so. &a.
Cf. 6(Jiv> m,n«i JUaa "how could he drivo her away?" Joseph 100, 5.

— 276 — § 338.

At tlie same time, suck construction of this very common word is relatively
rare. So wofe^^o o-asa> JJ "they were not able to put him to death"
Ephr. II, 435 B = Lamy I, 23 str. 26.

§ 338. A. Just as in the case of verbs connected by o (§ 336), so when
two verbs are placed together without a conjunction, an object which is
common to both usually appears only once: oMi-ooj y,*sua paxfc ^^o^JL ^>
"when thou dost introduce the memory of him into thy soul, and cause
it to dwell there" Ov. 163, 20; Jl=>(? W» kia-X fc^Sja* "she took gar-
ments of mourning and put them on" Jac. Sar., Thamar v. 280. With
suffixes: otnm? ^pjo avayecywv avrov Luke 4, 5 S.; oi^aof omajto
6to^ajs mi auarstXavreg ifyveyfcav mod %&a\pav (adryv) Acts 5, 10; JJL
,oj( jxasol "he lifted them up and poured them out" Sim. 273 inf. ;
c*=>o*- ^xl*. "he took and gave her" Ov. 168, 7; ct\v? — K*|o "he
brought him and led him in" Sim. 271 mid. ; and thus pretty often.

B. "When the object belongs only to one of the verbs thus set together,
it may yet be separated from it by the other verb, just as in the case
of verbs connected by means of o: —ofojiia t-vf jo^o ?o**»l MJ "a
wonderful mystery he held by anticipation in his hands" Aphr. 64, 5;
^oai 6i*a^. J8yi Ijjja {;©) *s(o "this too our father did beforehand by
mystic sign" Aphr. 63, 13 ; Ot-uf 020*4; . . . {&*.** "the knowledge . . .
that they had before" Aphr. 448, 16; ^» Jb^»Jb> u»if III faojo "and
the Lord came and cast fire upon the earth" Ov. 124, 14; ^> Jftffip
^ — k.J ^i* "who has come in and brought us money?" Joseph 229, 7
[Ov. 313, 17]; ^aico *^jl **^»I ... J ^^-JJ "those, who . . ., ho sub-
jected to much contempt and humiliation" Ov. 175, 11; ol+i, (jot *-pto
^.4>6Jo oiwjo! "and this they made known in Edessa, by moans of mes-
sengers" Jos. St. 90, 15; -&J Jjij "whom he sent for" John Eph. 328,
6 &c. So too oaaIo o-a-^i au&fj «-^. i-s^ Jl? y-I "for as they could
not afflict or injure me" Sim. 300 inf. (cf. § 337 B). So also with
prepositions: n\^ ,il o-asot jjiija "in their turn they found fault with
the judge" (*) Isaac I, 220 v. 313; uJoJt-a. s-o+aj ojoj ,&& JUu^p ^»
"from the East, our native land, my parents equipped and sent mo forth"

O *iJa %-r^Xl "he found fault with aome one".

§§ 339. 340. — 277 —

Apost. Apoe. 274, 11 (Gnostic hymn); (var. Ui&ulo) «.-ax.( aotol
JLm ^\.oi *^^, Jba*>j> i*a-*a.x* "I am writing and submitting demon-
strations to you, my beloved friend, about these leading points" Aphr.
446, 1 &c.

0. There is a Hebraism, which is occasionally imitated in original
writings, — tlio placing of a loo*o (\T>1) devoid of any special meaning, at
the beginning of the clause, — and which is followed by a Perf. with or
without an o-connection, e. g. cccqauao^, "^x f&ooo- ^^i-b JKa ^» tooio
"and, a few days after, Jovianus entered" Jul. 86, 1 ; jboo^j o)»Ka^ Jooto
(LoajJ <*.\» &JU-30 JvS|5? °Pf^ "and the next day, in the morning season,
tlie whole of the people assembled together" Jul. 95, 9 &c.

§ 339. The conjunction o does not serve the purpose of introducing Note upon
the apodosis (like the German "so" &c). Where it seems to stand for
tins in the 0. T., it is a literal translation of the Hebrew 1; in other
passages its appearance is due to corruption of the text. ( l ) o has, however,
taken possession of nearly the whole compass of the signification of the
Greek feat, and often means "also", "even" ["audi"], and then it is inter-
changeable with iai a or ififo. Such an o ("auch") may have a place in the
most diverse positions of the sentence, and even at the very beginning
of the apodosis. Farther o is everywhere allowable in the sense of ex-
clusion before negations, in cases like jj-» JJo "not even one" ; ys+so JJo
"nothing at all" &c. In the same sense we find j~o JJ vs{ &c.

§ 340. In rare cases, when several members of a sentence, or and «{
several sentences, are put together, o is placed even before the first of
these ("both . . . and"), e. g. in fro °i h \o JL;oo^.o &jbj "she conquered
both the Jews and the infidels" Ephr. Ill, 161 B; ^im.a ^*<u^o . . . }
> U* .^of^? fnyn ij^oo ."» <*■*•*? y-**>A^-° ^-^ "that ... we over-
come thy fire, trample thy menaces underfoot, mock at thy threatenings"
Jul. 48, 1. Of. ibid. 21, 7, 14. So JJo— JJo "neither— nor" ibid. 106, 1.
More frequent is ol — of "either — or": %^o» or^\ 6{ o rs ^ JJLuo^, Jiopw 6l
)j\flitt^ oi^M, JLso^^j "either chastise to the length of frightening, or

0) Oopyiats often dealt rather carelessly with these very common particles o
and j— of little significance to their minds.

— 278 — §§ 341 . 342.

send tlie erring ones to the civil magistrates" Ov. 219, 10; ok*J ol
Itoia oj.ool oi ,-\. "either bring to lis (the writings of the heretics), or
burn them in the tire" Ov. 220, 19; ^oa-^Ki ol <Q-»JiJ ol . . . ^ojot idfj
"that they also . . . either conquer or are overcome" Snic. 1.2, 13; cf. ibid.
19, 23; Jul. 146, 6; 152, 27 &o. Probably this use of o— o, ol— o\ was
first brought about through Kod — ««/, ^ — ^; cf. ^. g, Luke 16, 13.

B. RELATIVE CLAUSES.
ATTRIBUTIVE RELATIVE CLAUSES.
HoLitivo § 341. What was originally the demonstrative pronoun ? lias had

Pronoun -^ ^jmilicafcum so much weakened, that in very many cases it serves

anil Bofor- ° * " "

ringworm, merely to indicate the connection of the relative clause with the word,
of which that clause forms the attribute, while a personal pronoun (or a,
pronominal suffix), pointing bade to that word, stands in its regular gram-
matical connection within the relative clause.

Rofovri.i B § 342. This referring pronoun may even stand as the Subject, e. g.

*jto*ij ootj <£°t^o — £» y^° "^ ne k m 8 °f Media and Persia, who is
Darius" Aphr. 83, 5 (but ip^aoAj — otoK-Jj ^Aib? Lao;_a "the over-
shadowing cherub, who is Nebuchadnezzar" Aphr. 87, 2); 0*90*? jLa
J»C$M o^\a-.ot "thy house, which is the temple of Grort" Aphr. 46, 1 ;
JSwO) ^*- ^X w^JW ootj o6( JL^j "that prophet, who has informed us
of this" Ov. 75, 10; ^; m ,U Jk\£J& a.^ o»» JUtcwaX, "to Moses, who
separated the lands of food for Israel" Aphr. 310, 8; u^otj IK*^L»f J^f^I?
(fiv-jOfO "the last testament, which is the first" Aphr. 28, 9; Jl &\o
Ifcii-u? t^oi^-a ^ap (Oot-X JLot^o wotj ^o^s %J> otl^uj "nor even is
there in them the fear of Him (God), which delivers them from every
(other) fear" Spic. 2, 25; ?$6^xo **i~i ^ojot? JL*JL*& "the Midianites,
who arc the children of Keturah" Aphr. 211, 4 &c. The separation
of the referring pronoun from the relative-word gives stronger emphasis
in 004 ^Lo^o ^ JLa^b JJo bv^ |J 001 JluJo Jboxj) uoax^; Jboj Jba~o» oj6i
"that is the (true) friend, who, when friends and brethren forget thee,
for his part forgets thee not, and forsakes tbeo not, but remains with
thee" Ephr. Ill, 305 P. Additional forco we find givon by a demonstra-
tive, e.g. in kj^^^oi — c*? "id quodaccicl-W .Ephr. (Lamy) I, 217, 5;

li'orm ii

§ 343. — 279 -

low ^aofcjn! )" N " tta. h°i 9°t? "whioh man found liimself directly
with tlie king" Jul. 235, 25.

In nil these eases, however, the Referring form is necessary only
when the relative clause consists merely of } and a substantive, without
a copula. Par more frequently it is wanting as the Subject.

8 343. In the majority of cases too the Objective relation is inch- j*"*^
catcd without having recourse to a referring pronoun. Thus e. g. ISobojo the na of
|aoj! op/cov Sv afioasv Luke 1, 73; ^.m) W*,j (ti**> "the word ot trod,
which he had received" Ov. 166, 9; Uo^ai IjXoib} io^ilo (JaSg. "the
wickedness and the sins, which looseness engenders" Ov. 179, 18; and thus
very frequently. On the other hand recourse is had to the Referring
form in -ovJ?c»i.» ooi "whom we have mentioned" Ov. 164, 17; oilj^s
o»3d^ -T" ; -ex lw^! "in the Church of God, which he gained with his
blood" Ov. 172, 17; lo^. op^t i-^^fJJ "for to Adam, whom God
blessed" Aphr. 346, 12; ot=>o-u ,oljI cm*s! (I> j-^^ojoi "for those whom
his love did not persuade" Ov. 175, 5 &c. The Referring form is usual
with the participle: vOoti^J v oo^ Jlffes JAot-X Jsofi-! ,j\.l J«iii=»
"the sons of men, whom their cupidity still beguiles" Spic. 8, 14;
ito^X ,oo£>. JLvjoj |*j! "people, whom grace calls" Jul. 27, 27 &c.
"With a dependent Infinitive: k-oo, Jaj V wskaiaX! )=*» o« "that tiling,
which I did not wish to write" Ov. 21, 7; ^!( ^1 Ifc-iojo i^ 5 ^
^j| U^y£> ...~.^ Ja^a "the curses and revihngs, which not even
Scripture can reveal" Aphr. 343, 18. Since a verb does not readily take
two personal pronouns as its object, the Eeferring form is left out with
double transitivos, in cases like ^otil ^oUo!? iloA^j l-^ka "the false
gods [idols of falsity], which our fathers made us heirs to" Jer. 16, 19
(Aphr. 321 ult.) ; ,1.^03? <A-! "that which thou hast commanded us"
Sim. 397, 12; wikXJf. |lj *|o .»ik*»l.t p»» "what thou hast sought from
me, and also what thou hast not asked of mo" Aphr. 506 ult. &c. On
the other hand, the Referring form is desirable in cases like jbo^xtdo!
la^msl (loaS Jiu t i too, o,^? 06, hoo^ "the blessed Eusel.ius, whom
the holy Rabbula made a bishop" Ov. 167, 20. Wo have a Passive from the
double transitive verb, in U j-as) j>^> "something that was ordered thee"
Moes. II, 70, 11; but such an expression perhaps can only occur in brief

— 280 — §§ 344. 345.

unequivocal sentences. To this perhaps we may add, that muJaq "(is)
satisfied, contented" is sometimes employed like a transitive verb, in a
short relative clause : uJio; y>j*> ^iui "that he should say what ho
wanted" ("wherewith he was satisfied") Joseph 11 yaen. [Ov. 275, 5]
(var. ^=»j} "what we wished") ; .xuio; Ijja Bphr. Ill, 674 P; ■ uiao; Jboao
ibid. 675 A; -uiio; '^a. .ooti. ^as (oou "let him order them whatever
he wishes" Sim. 369, 8. Similarly tow J=^Jt-; JLa-ta JaJJ "the Messed
seed, after which she was longing" Jac. Sar., Thamar v. 279.

Peculiar is the lack of the Referring form with dependent parti-
ciples (§ 272) in t^a*> Jot* j^io; -6i JUa-iJ "the hounty, which he
was wont to dispense" Ov. 205, 19.

§ 344. The Referring form, however, is necessary with the Genitive
relation and with Prepositions: oiX e *^ j£liL oik-^a; ^ "one, whose
house thieves break into" Aplrr. 145, 11; 6ilo-ot K.\ . (K=scho_*» {;ot
n(Sn J vAt-» "this gift, the like of which does not exist in the whole
world" Aphr. 356, 3; JL*^. M l( ova; ilioj..; !tjh» "through a Httle sign,
by means of which he was caught for life" Ov. 162, 1 ; 6ta *^~U; tftujoo^.
"to the grotto, in which he was born" Ov. 165, 3 ; o£»* lo! , ■ ™ ; Jo3.
— otaiiKa io**i*.o J hnrin^ > o^. ij| pJUbo "Sod whom thou dost adore,
and before whom thou layest sweet odours, and whose scriptures thou
hast heard" Sim. 271 mid. &c. The Referring form is attached to a
substantive depending on another substantive, in ^A.ot . . . {JLotAJa
^ooilVkiao} J^iXj ^ninVi (t^^iao ika.Ks=»; "in the fathers, the deline-
ations of whose virtues are set forth both in the Old Testament and in the
New" Ov. 160, 9; j^jU otLoU ^ J^; liaxj JLuaoja; oot . . . )ooi^!
(loai Itao^ lost "Abraham . . . , by the moderate brightness of one of
whose signs the blessed Rabbula was attracted" Ov. 167, 12 — 14.

§ 345. The Referring form may, in certain circumstances, occur
explicitly or implicitly, only in a farther attributive or dependent clause :
-oioJLfipopj lo-^Sf. Iij.|} b! loA. V lil; oot 0! oiiK. sift! iyiii dialog ha \im
airoO rdv Ifi&vra nO {mobtf/Mtrog John 1, 27; ^ot . . . (j^{ Njlo **a >i
JLiSoj&X JLSo- ^0 ^j( i n « qi ; ^ ^AvW, jlo-i ,,^ (Jjiao <!; "the forty-
six letters . . . which, if grace help (or with the help of God's grace), we
are endeavouring to translate from the Greek into Syriac" Ov. 200, 19;

§ 346. — 281 —

(OjJ , ~-vi ; ..<■»»« . . . JUjJ v^ ^^oo; »A.! . . . Koo.3 "commandments,
sucli as every one can fulfil" Spic. 5, 24; -ffoill r a kj( »sl} ^.oi
,o! ooKj! A tail's* ^"t 1 a) ■ ^tta "which, as they filled tliee with
amazement through the greatness of their number, thou didst commission
me to note down (in letters)" Jos. St. 5, 2; i^aio ^J-u? !*.*n> Jlu£o£
(OjJ ^SSSsiu "the well-ordered glories, which the book-leamed man has
a difficulty in describing" Moes. II, 158 v. 1266; ,»*^»} ^« . . . |i«jp
6£v- ,o<*JS^( k.!i-ki JU.o(? "the moon, to which they think that now they
very specially belong" Ov. 70, 3 ; ^nnrnj; ^r^^l k*&? ^w ■ • ■ X"*oI !t-"
ooo) ^jap V ot=> "one path, by which not even two persons could
ascend together" Jos. St. 15, 6; %Jt |l Jifju! ouso oSj; JLaojj ojoi "hie
est amor, quo qui major sit, noil est" Jac. Sar. in Zingerle's Chrest.
p. 375 — ,^-" K""0-; Ipo!} ilaaj "the tilings, of which I have said,
that they rest upon ordinance" Spic. 4, 17 ; ^kj! yi fiqw joy* (in
,", ^^ 1; "this thing, which you have been commanded to do" Spic. 1, 7;
^tA-v ^ )ouU} (oo* t~&^-? J» "what the Lord was about to do with
him" Sim. 309 mid. &c. Gf. lv^-5^ t;{^k»? ^J^-=>} *JjJ "ubi scriptum
est nasei viros" Spic. 15, 9. Notice farther Jaj v ootX; ^Aoi . . . I f iSnm
yX. J^JSU.!? (it "these doings, wliich I will recount to thee" Jos. St. 8, 6 ;
ooKajj J&. j*~ : ~* f.oA} "quae ut scribamus nobis proposition est" Jos.
St. 6, 11, — in which instances also the Referring form belongs to the
verb which stands at the close. The sentence ^> jo! Jiai V «=»J>! °w
wo*a*ot^ajD Jpyv^iyt jjin Kmn *j jK.-.\.6 "quern quis camificem fidelium
vocans forte non fallatur" Land U, 175, 9 [lit.: "he whom perhaps one
would not depart from propriety in calling 'the executioner' (questionarius)
of the faithful"] is no doubt essentially Greek in thought. The clause
which should have contained the Referring form, is left out as self-
evident, in .oti-mj [•*!*■"':] P'J A»b "™d do what it befits them
[to do]" Jos. St. 88, 15.

8 346. The expression of the Referring form by means of a proper E.fcm-ine

T > Form ex-

demonstrative is rare, and is limited to special cases. In «u| -o, pia ,„ a bJ

J,6, .jp ^->- "quod alsit a vobis" Addai 44, 16, the usu,— originally ^™° n '

belonging to the beginning of the sentence — is but loosely attached to

what precedes it. Sentences, again, of a different style, are met with in

— 282 — § 347-

»-^. JLju* JJ {toaoj wbt yj,\} J U u ax* ^u ^a^^ty ?jl-0 "I see a glorious man,
the like of whose form has never yet been seen by me" Sim. 328, 7, and
Jiiiji ^A.ov=» toot JJ ^-6t yjj {L? "a sign, the like of which has not happened
in these times" Sim. 379, 12. — ^^llj t _u r > ^jqa {jot "^^lo? "on ac-
count of which thing we command thee to ho chastised" John Epli. 202,
19, and suchlike expressions, in John Epli. and others, scarcely correspond
to true Syriac idiom. The 'Referring form is strengthened by means of
a demonstrative in jLX* ,oot-\. K*{ ^*Xot.X <oot-X; - * . Jbootd-£ **!=>
"kinsmen . . . , people who possessed an army" Jul. 152, 21; joj»_ Jjot ootj
{oot N ^=»_oKi»J JLtC^ao "who had just met with the emperor" Jul. 235, 25 ;
^» o*X 6*Xv {jot —ot t3{j "what the Lord likewise revealed to him" Sim.
366 mid. In expressions of locality, the lieferring form is more usually
contrived by means of the adverb of place, jkl "there": JlsJj . . . lilJJ
(lSi*^o l*^» ^isfcX "at a place, which even the word does not reach"
Moes. II, 156 v. 1247; ^fW.fc^o ^ol {oV£w ^o^Xa; jlj "there, where all
sins are expiated" Aphr. 243, 2; ^>L t-^UJ? om-Ld i-z* fi±~ "with its own
like, where (= in which) it had been fettered" Ov. 63, 10 ; ^&b ^st <-<£>»;
(io£t "uM utinam mansiss$t mens" Moes. II, 98 v. 334.
Baiattvo § 347. Even as several nouns of place, and especially nouns of

atuohadto time, ma y» without any preposition, stand as adverbs (§ 243), so also, in
Adverbial a re i a tive clause which serves as attribute to a noun of that kind, the

IGxpTQB-

Bion B . mere relative-word [j] may suffice, without any preposition or Referring
form, e. g. <^oj "^Swj Jboo^X Jbo^ &%pi VS fafyas sfoyfk&sv Ncoe Matt.
24, 38 P. (= ovaj; S. merely , ^j J»**0; ? Jbaso-^ iv jjft&pq % Matt.
24, 50 (and thus, frequently) ; j {t*iJLa in copa j\ ihid. ; JULaoi. ,boo-ca
^JjL^fioo} "on the eighth day, when they arc circumcised" Spic. 19, 17;
j jfeo>.a~> 6^a "at the very moment, when" Aphr. 129, 6; &jlj \ifa $o
wotorVs.jj ^kk "from the time of the sixth hour, when they crucified
him" Aphr. 15, 17; Jj^viN. ^{jt; ^ovi.'s.a,; otln Wvij >&»*{ ki«\ JLsop*.
"till the fourth year of the reign of Solomon, when he began to build"
Aphr. 482, 9; Jboo-j os^a=> \r\mZ toot; wotnV-»jj Jbxsa- oot JJ! "but
that day, when they crucified him, when there was darkness at midday"
Aphr. 343, 6; JU.a» on^ii; JjjsJ JL^ip ^j> "when the time came, that
Moses was to die" Aphr. 161, 7; frt.SN, aafiyj ^o*- {t^-JSa "in the

§ 347. — 283 —

throe months, during which they besieged it" Jos. St. 50, 11; ^ o^aa
Ilojot^a loot? — oioii <Jlm. j.*^ "for in nil the years of his life, that he
was in the priesthood" Ov. 17C, 16; and in the same way with many
similar expressions of time. Other turns of speech also may take their
place here, such as JLfcv. oNatv ali; iJL^m (oj *ka "long, after tongues
had heon confused" Aphr. 463 nit.; <Js-"^ 'M? <** < | "V" >k=> "fifty
years, after he had come to Haran" Aphr. 465, 9; . ->fmi > ^ajjl **ȣ ioJjs
1 A o>^\ .n i°ii^.? "five years, before Isaac had taken Rebecca" Aphr.
479, 16, and many like examples (but w<xbj ^o. ^. ; nns ^^ika ao
JhoojA "for after twenty days, during which he had continued fasting"
Sim. 273, 8). Thus also lotS- o p o'. ^^Asi; ^.1*1 ki*=> "two years, after
God had spoken with him" Aphr. 237, 4 &c. — With expressions of place:
^oo^-k-J? JLoo} ^u "wherever they are" [lit. "in every place that they
are"] Spic. 20, 15; oSNSlt; wdi ikjOya 6+s "in the place where they
were crowned [i. a. suffered martyrdom]" Mart. I, 159 inf.; > !kj>of k-i
"est locus, ubi" Aphr. 69, 12 (but 6»a fuUlj ik-ao? — 6v\. "in the
jdace, where he had been laid hold of Aphr. 222, 3); iLoVlJ »;JU^b
oopu JLjui , -\ A ft' ; JLol-^a* ilo-iNyia "there are many districts in the
kingdom of the Parthians, whore men put their wives to death" Spic. 14, 24 ;
ooot? .fYy^ ft" ^oill ^\aa "in all lands and climes, where they are"
Spic. 14, 20 &c.

Tliis mode of expression comes most readily, when the same pre-
position is found before the words of time and place, that would have
had to stand before the Referring form. Under such a condition, even
in the case of other words, the Referring form is on rare occasions
omitted. Thus particularly in cases like ; Itaiop "in the form, that",
"just as" Ov. 163, 22; 192, 7; Philox. 531, 19; and j !L"-»> -6ta> Sim.
330 inf.; Philox. 384, 11, and often in PMlox.; j Jbaso^a "as" ibid.
343, 20; j jma I v^owa "in the order, in which" ibid. 589, 24; j \i&
"in the way, in which" ibid. 573, 19. More remarkable are the following:
^t^jb} ^ ^» ^uj! «JSob ^(o fcj| J^i? ^ ^» M ^ *Ji
^. ..«| "thou sinnest, because of that for which (-= oti^jo?) thou sinnest;
and we die, because of that for which we die" Mart. I, 126, 2; ^*»
i r j ^*ol[ ) K..~ "in all the evil, to which thou hast set band" Isaac I,

Clauses at-
tached to
Adverbs.

— 284 — §§ 348. 349.

132 v. 11.17 ; ^^Aij pjjo oota "in that matter, over which they have
powor" Spic. 9, 24 (of. line 25).
Boi.tiv» § 348. In the same series with such expressions of place and time

stand the adverbial forms, some of them of frequent occurrence, like
j (uooj "to-day, when"; j JLLot "now, when"; j lu*& or » cnjuup "as
soon as"; j wfcivi. i^> "as soon as" (§ 155 B); } W.iy "now that" Aphr.
484, 14; » -tjol "when", "as often as"; » ^S> "now that", "hut now
that" Land III, 60, 13; » J^.| "where"; . A%-l ^> "from that place,
where" Gen. 12, 1; Ex. 5, 11; ? |LaJ "so as"; ; JU> "when", "in caso
that", (§ 258) and others, to which we must to some extent return,
farther on. In none of these cases does a Eeferring form occur; -&1
is only found occasionally, as above, § 346; Jka*.o.,. ^jbL M JU? Jl»J
"where no body is present" Moes. II, 136 v. 939, and o^j JaJ kj ||
~ot ^jbl. "and there is no place where it (f.) might not be" Moes. II,
92 v. 239.

tot"?."" § 349 ' A - The P re l™sition, which of right should have been at-

xoiatire tachecl to the Eeferring form, is sometimes found prefixed to the Noun, to
r™ P o»iHon which the relative clause belongs, particularly in the case of the Adverbial

"™»« » Noun of place, JLU: J^iatJ Jl Jl^ Jbo,, J^op, JLuJI "the palace has

the Eofer-

>a» B »or». not been built in the place, to which I have sent gold" ZDMG XXV,
340 v. 403; ; JjiJI "there, whither", "whithersoever" 1 Sam. 14, 47, and
thus, frequently; } JLU £> "there, whence" Matt. 12, 44 (C. S. > ill m);
Ohron. Edess. (Halher) 145 paen. (Doc. of 201) ; Jul. 242, 22 ; Sim. 325, 8.
So too with the construct state w (§ 359) ; } jjA. "wlrithersoever" Judges
2, 15; 2 Sam. 8, 14 (where there is a var. j MJI); Aphr. 438, 18; 439, 8;
j ^3 ^ "from whatever place" Aphr. 121, 14; Jul. 21 ult. In these cases
a referring form is inadmissible. But ; jji*. may mean also "to that
place, whither" ZDMG XXV, 337 v. 297; Jul. 15, 13; and "to that
place, where" Aphr. 46, 15 ; j ^ ^> "from the place, where" Aphr. 222, 1 ;
Ephr. I, 36 B; and } JLaJ ,*> "from the place, whence" Ephr. II, 117 I".
It is the very same in the case of several combinations with ^iX:
"^S^Jsjo VN >!jS ^^- JL<^*! J*i.j "the image of the Hng [money]
is accepted in all parts it goes to" Aphr. 442, 16, and so Aphr. 302, 1 ;
438, 14 (but also t»^. a^jl} lilt \aa "in every place to which they

§ 350. — 285 —

have gone" Spio. 18, 21) ; (ojui ot^ascdtj (Tar. ^^>^) °*-^{ ^aX}
A(>v fc^ {] ■»» "wliich (f.), on every side to which you turn it, presents a
beautiful appearance" Aphr. 442, 6; ^m J yi . i ,i> ojJJioDj JUjja VX
^K .^ tl w^-^ *jt^ "whomsoever the wise man meets with, he learns
[lit. 'tastes'] his judgment from Ms tongue" Aphr. 186, 4.

B. In translations however, Greek relative constructions, with the
preposition before the relative pronoun, are directly copied. Thus even
in the N. T.: oooi .Jo! <oM ^Nio M Olfc-a^o Luke 9 > 4 °- s -5
ooa ^ol ovX v okj! ,AK! Il>-^ Mo ibid. Pesh. = xal e)( to a" olielca
eiai\t)yjre, ixel piivsTs; cf. Mark 6,' 10 &c. And conrpletely is this the
case in later, slavish translations; in these we have > ow ^> If oS (instead
of e>n*>? . . . od»); } oovX &> &c, e. g. jojwj MJLa ioot -otokj *.il L»j^
ocl*1 JL^o*.; ob^X dvSpwro; ng rfi h x»pf 'HI Aiiu/no/ (o Sm/m. IcoyS Job
1, 1 Hex.; W. jli36ooj v ojo( ;o^ 1^>! X^yp-qaa /tsff & aweXewo/tca ("I
shall seek those, with whom") Prov. 23, 35 Hex.; koSjJo? -w^x la>i*r
^50 KV ij /cX/«7 £<£ ^j iirf/9^ sksi 4 (2) Kings 1, 16 Hex.; )»»» (aioi
} oitX ahSsalv riva to . . . Arist. Hermeneutica (ed. G. Hoffmann) 26, 6
= 27, 7. Such constructions are also imitated by original writers who

affect a Greek style, e. g. jcum^a (J&Ai. Ifu ol» ? f r ! woii. (IfcSno)

o^K.!; 6,^ ...... ~ conceived like \6yog Ifriu . . . /c$ ,"'«>' /"* eiSpifcs/

s7t*a «/t/«» Jac. Ed. Epist. 13 p. 2, 21. Here the Referring form serves
at least to clear up the meaning. Compare otaao*. jjs l?o£»-! "quod gwm
audiret" Hoffmann, Martyrer 107, 964, and similarly in John Eph.

8 350. A. When the relative clause refers directly to the first or miativ.

... Clauses

second Person, then the Referring form also keeps tins Person throughout: la „„ in g i0
-Sk=> v ok4l) .okit li/xel; oi cucaXouO^aavHs /Ml Matt. 19, 28 ; ^i . in i vH ^ 2n ° " ™
v oon» "to us, who are higher placed than they" Ov. 184, 17 ; ,^1 ^ ™^*«
^uu "we, who are poor" Aphr. 119, 22; ^i^-j ^} «J-" "but we, who Ara°"*«
know" Aplir. 497, 16; l^oiS; \i\ "I, who have been running" Ov. 306, 11; vooti™.
) \.-.w~ Wai t, .-i^ l* "and lift me out, who have fallen into evil" Ephr.
in, 429 A; o^. o~l» iJL^tt itcao? ,.( )ii "but I, by whom many dead
people lived" Ephr. Nis. p. 68 v. 58; ,eJM ^uo-opoj ,o-a^ "to you,

( l ) Kead thus, for f ).» -»V also in 0.

— 286 - § 350.

who believe" Spio. 2, 19; v l^^j -po ^ "to thee, Lord, who hast
created us" Ov. 424, 4 (where there is a whole series of instances) &v..

Bern, The correctness of ^ooiajo ^.j-ji.} ^o "we, who have boon
aided by them" Ov. 184, 20 (instead of ^j-j^;) and of M ? oot <_X
(i^o*. "to us, who have power" ibid. 19 (instead of ,A. M?) is very
doubtful,

B. The second Person may stand with the vocative : ^" •■■-» ; !o|3n
l^iijax ^.ot^o ^ "0 God, to whom all difficult things are easy" Sim.
330, 1 ; yx±* \^.o h^di; y. r \ ^ ^ l^jja.i., JLaooo jj^ jl^j g|
1> Joij "0 stupid and foolish shepherd, to whose right hand and right eye
I have committed my sheep" Aphr. 194, 14; JUiiX O^tA^oj p±*.}6l
i^oloi». a^i.K»Jj ,^_|) 0— kja^io 'IspousaX^, oj aTro/crsivovoa roiig
wptxpyras mi XiflojlokoOaa rou; airtstiTaX/jLhou; npd; airy-p Luko 13, 34
C. S.; cf. ^ Isasii. Qiaai 1 Kings 22, 28, and Jiniii. ^ajxVa uijut
Micah 1, a - B|| t«j>» Kty. But the third person appears ofteuer in
this case: ^Aoo o,kj w fcof ,ji "O thou ram, whose horns are broken"
Aphr. 83, 23; ttoso^ o^ijU ^oo^^ ^,\ JU*, "Voj. y,\\ oi=, o/ ^^jS,
"now, ye sons of Adam, all ye whom death reigns over, think upon death"
Aphr. 422, 20; \^Wo (J; JUuJ ^ "() man, who dost not understand"
Aphr. 497, IB; id^a o*X oo, ^j JL1U "O Being, who alone kuowest
thyself" Moes. II, 76 v. 5; o^« ? JL-^ "ye Hebrews, who wero ho-
noured" Ov. 304, 13; X»P°° °^R **-! »l "0 thou who swoarest
by thy head [lit. 'his head'], and liest" Aplir. 500, 7 &c.

C. Also when, without any formal relative clause, an indication of
reference appears in the detailed determination [or complement] of the
Vocative, the third person is then taken: v oo^fa (L^iX >^^!b 8J"yowho
love, with your [heart's] blood, him who was put to death" Mart. I, 68,
19, cf. Hue 21; ^a^, o^ms^ Sjj 5! "(.) thou who dost represent an
image of thyself in Joseph" Joseph 4, 12 [Ov. 271, 22]; ^oo^ oxf
owooiQ^^ii "know, all of you his kinsmen" Jul. 1B8, 26; fca„
-■xoi^oij "0 man of wounds" [lit. "man of his sores"] (§ 224) Moes.

( x ) To be read as Perfects.

§ 3B1. — 287 —

II, 162 v. 1324 &c. So Luke 18, 34 in P. [but otherwise in C. and S.,
see above], in verbal agreement, to be sure, with the original text.

Compare with these examples 6oJ ^=*& ^oot^^aa — fcyao ^j
,oo(Kiai=» — fcoao looti jason; "thou who dost advise ns, wlio are dead
in our body (lit 'people dead in their body'), that wo should farther become
people who are dead in their souls" Mart. 1, 159 mid., where the Referring
form in the Apposition is the same as in the relative clause. v*<^^=>
would hardly be wrong hero. In the same way ^wLoiJLo "^i. u^A»o
^oM "and you are (such as are), the masters of their own freedom"
Jul. 73, 13; ,oon»=>j ^i. u^\i.» )Jo ,Jjj ijUis "we are the subjects,
and not the masters of our will" Jul. 106, 6.

D. The first or second Person, however, is generally employed
directly in the Referring form of an attributive relative clause, attached
to a predicate whose subject is in the first or second person respectively:
..n^ K.s.^ ; .~ .~ .'. |i| \il "I am Habib, whom ye have sought" Anc. Doc.
90 nit. ; & ~jj y=>; ua .i &o -*a ow M nil s?( J ) 6 vlog /xov 6 ayanyTo;,
sv & suboKyjaa Matt. 3, 17 G. S.; n v m j lio !k«jo ja\oi> to! t"i J vu i N
.\.~ j« ^jj ya oJu=»t{; }~'l J^il J^ao-uo ua "the bread of life art thou,
winch the dead have eaten, and through which they have been raised
to life again ; and the good wine art thou, through which all mourning
ones are comforted" Jac. Sar. Thamar v. 31 ; vkxjol? ooi to) "thou art
he, who hast made known to us" Aphr. 492, 18 &c. Cf. ^jujjjIUjoo
. >.. ^t^jkaoj J««-.-t~ "and wo are found to bo men who arc led" Spic.
10, 20, and (i^-o*. ^ma.vn uouUo jjji-! ^k^ico; JU_il yj ^hjla
6^.J -120} "ye, as men who have hated our honour, and in whose eyes
the power wielded by us is despised, go forth" Jul. 73, 11.

And yot the third person is permissible in such cases too: ^Lue
oiaj^a i""*!]! (isi^^ "and we are vines, that have been planted therein"
Aphr. 288, 12, and similar examples.

S 35]. Corresponding to what is described in §§ 242 and 319, a nun

. .,,.,, Clausen

substitute for the Subject may occur oven m a relative clause, by means wllh

(') Like Mark 1, 11; -Luke 3, 22 (where S. also lias ya,). Our text here has
oiroi sariv, and P. agrees with it.

Relative
Clause pro*

— 288 — § 352.

of separating it into its parts through t-"— j*> and suchlike forms: Hoa?
'**• r?P h*> «*•*£! "things which are different from one another" Spic.
11, 14 &c. And still more freely: (^ j^A. loo, o^ol*.} JLol -j JO.
•^Jo-ao*. (i^oUo M-jPfi "two brothers, however, of whom the one was
called Barhadhbcshabbs, and the other Samuel" Mart. I, 157 ult; **£>.;
^a* ,^Xo "WoA* loo, opa*. "of whom the one was called Samuel,
and the other Jonathan" Land II, 277, 14, and thus, frequently, with

§ 352. A. It is not common to have the attributive relative clause
cdta„It, preceding the word, to which it refers. But the following are examines

Noun. j, ,. , , o J.

of that arrangement: JlaaJ ^ ^ii. ^ota^ t.^1.,0 "and the things,
which lie before their eyes, are despised by them" Aphr. 426, 18 ; Skjo;
^X ^.^aaX loo, )J6 )iji> o,^ ^ "what should he have given us, that
was better than his son?" Aphr. 485, 20, [lit. "that was better than his
son— what ought he to have given us?"] where a strong rhetorical
relief is produced; jut' ^ajfc? Js^X "no man existed, who thought . . "
Jul. 194 ult. The words woji o«ojj} |l ^,«,, ^o6j3 . » 1 ^ ; Jjo, ^.ojo
are to he translated "and this very thing, which our Redeemer taught to
us,— the zeal of his love,— he showed . . " Aphr. 40 ult., so that |1 <. {.«,.
is an Epexegesis, and not "and just this zeal which he &c".

B. Very frequently there stand, at the commencement of the clause,
only compounds of yj$ with demonstratives or interrogatives : yjj
JJSi ^o, "sufferings, wliich are as these" = "such sufferings" Ov.
168, 1; Ji^ojo ^ ^.Jp "in such a deed" Isaac II, 216 v. 251 and
v. 280 ; ILL*. 1-iBo* ^^ ^.o, ^Ip "for in such borrowed beauties"
Ephr. II, 171 E ; HI Vao, |;o, y| ? "such a token, then" Jos. St. 41, 7 &c. ;
J^Ji^o* (ul ylj "what sort of pilot?" Sim. 384 mid.; ,A,| y-| ? ^>
lUao "a quatibus mortibus" Assem. 2, 44 (Philoxenus) &c. It is, however,
permissible to place the demonstrative forms at the end, e. g. yjj )«Xo|
<*S»-ot "such afflictions" Jos. St. 4, 17 &c.

Bern,. The } may also be wanting here : Jbo^^l^s bo, y4 "such a
word" Aphr. 77, 6; {Uaj -o, ^| "such a thing" Sim. 292, 10 &o. ... ^.1?
may also stand as a substantive : ^o, yJ r ao ;-»~ Aop "per haec
enim et Mia" Isaac I, 248 v. 511 &c. After the Greek pattern several

§§ 353—355. — 289 —

combinations are formed, like ^-a-l y>Jj owu, oi'ov w$ "for example" and
many others.

8 353. Interrogatives with J and the pronoun of the third person "who-

° BOOVOt" Ao

are employed adjectively and substantively in the sense of "whosoever,
whatsoever", "any (one), any (thing)" Sue. : "=»> lj-i Uaaj ^^-» "for
anything whatsoever" Jos. St. 80, 16 ; Ito^. ~oi> if*Ja o| ooi» Jfui (<jta
"in any way or for any cause whatever" Philox. Epist. (G-uidi) fol. 10 a,

I, 2; IKupo <-oi! !*J ^Jia "in any city you please" Land II, 240, 10; '
ooij Jut bo^jajio JifXo! ^u "in any distress or illness whatsoever" Moes.

II, 73, 26; ,2*. ooi Jaui lo.*aj; ooij W iloio "and any kind of death
whatsoever, that we may die, is for us a comfort" Ephr. II, 175 C; ^o
U~~ ooi; )x4 "any grave whatever" Jos. St. 39, 10; w«; l^ji ^-aoi-o
ETtwovTBg tyspopisda (lit. "we let her go wherever she would") [E. V. "we let
her drive"] Acts 27, 15; ooij ,Jb! "of any one you please" Ov. 218, 11 &c.
So frequently ootj w kso£ "whensoever"; o«j JLA*J "wherever", and many
others. In accordance with these forms we have even ootj »-? ^o "from
whatever quarter" Euseb. Ch. Hist. 332, 12.

§ 354. The omission of the j in a complete attributive relative Omission
clause occurs perhaps only as a Hebraism, in the O. T., as in o^ojb odj ! '

"whose name was Job" Job 1, 1. — Formulae of blessing, — as in Julio-
JN~;»^\ op^o; "Josiah, whose memory be blessed!" [lit. "Josiah —
his memory (is) with blessing!"] Aphr. 470, 15 (of. Sim. 392 mid.);
ot-V | ■ ■"» vj^ "the Lord — to Him be adoration paid!" Sim. 358, 1;
363 inf. (Cod. Lond. otln-» . ^-V '.»)— are not to be regarded as relative
clauses, but as parentheses. They are, besides, comparatively rare in Syriac.

§ 355. Short adverbial adjuncts to a noun are generally turned short Aa-
into the form of relative clauses, by means of } ; uaajjVl )"-! J%4> l*i°^ Quanta,
"in hard combats with the powers (of hell)" Ov. 159, 9; |ot-i> kifo j£jj£
o>=>! "with the Divine wisdom, which (was) in him" Ov. 172, 18; ^>i- oi»us...
Jjl&X Jbo£^j otto •^•[ I "over his error, which had lasted till then" Ov.
164, 7 ; jojAa opoo-ui ^Wj )l ■»«.«)'■» "through anxiety solely for him-
self" Ov. 177, 22 ; wx»» yolk's i.?.\ "their reverence for him" Ov. 183, 26 ;
,-*>fciv? oiISii.jJL» "his journey thither" Ov. 168, 20, and countless other
instances.

19

Manse
Attribute
to a wbalo
Sentence.

_ 290 — §§ 356. 357.

Time is not usually specified in such phrases (§ 315). Moreover,
when no harshness arises, direct collocation is allowable, and often oc-
curs: <;»i^- v°°»''> v y "their immigration into Egypt" Aplir. 27, 13 &o.
But even to adjectives the adverlis «a^, »<-^» "very" are often attached
"by means of the relative particle: ^%) |k=»j !to-u» "a very severe blow"
Judges 11, 33; u^bj W ^^^ "<""' very great toil" Ov. 320, 9, where
of course the j might he left out.
M»tivo ■ § 356. A relative clause may stand as attribute to a whole sen-

tence even : )i:i-. «A-X> !><* i^ojiX JjiojuI ooi oi^J ^t^! P ! "' le
said, that the darkness longed after the light,— a tiling which (id 01,0(1)
lies not in nature" Ov. 59, 13 ; -ot )t^? —o> JLoiAi, juKmo ot^-t^ <j°
n y.A^\ "and if the darkness is put in pain through what belongs to
itself, — a notion which is difficult to accept" Ov. 60, 9; toot .a!? ~w
(after a rather long passage) "a thing which, however, actually happened"
Sim. 284 mid.; 290 mid.; ^ja-aiUj JLami.! Ijoi o<^ Uj?- i-oJ» LiaX?
"was perhaps burdensome to him, — a thing which is difficult to believe"
Joseph 293, 2; ow JLS^»s W (Kiiya oKajo JLd-^o )fc?Jj [v* * 1 '] $°
otp^aA f ..^« vs jax^a "nor (are we ordered) that we should
build towns and found cities,— a tiling which kings only can do" Spic. 5, 19
(where there are several other examples of j ! r l). In all these oases, of
course, a demonstrative or interrogative will be found as a correla-
tive. Cf. § 346.

Bern. On the correlatives in use or permitted with the attributive
relative clause, v. § 236.

CONJUNCTIONAL RELATIVE CLAUSES.
rrBiiminftry § 357. The relative particle j often serves to indicate that a com-

plete clause, — quite beyond its attributive relation, — is taking tho place
of an individual part of speech. Between this conjunctional use and tho
attributive use the contrast is by no means very strongly marked. Tho
language sometimes treats relative clauses, which woro originally Con-
junctional, as if they were equivalent to Attributive ones (as e. fj. with
; it|, where the relation is properly a genitive ono § 359), and transforms
Conjunctional clauses into epexegeses of an attributive character, by

Observn-

§ 358. — 291 —

putting substantives, correlative pronouns, or adverbs, in front of them, —
often without altering the sense in the least. We shall accordingly, for
convenience' sake, discuss in the present chapter several points, winch in
strictness belong to the foregoing one.

§ 358. A. A. clause may, with the help of j, take the place of Beiative

a t • )fc 1 ii 1 Clause aa

bnbject: fJx ^ aa^.. )^am loop pi^l ^oj (i^x "it is of advantage that subject,
support should be gained for the word from other things" Ov. 162, 19; r^Site.
(JIojo ,_» J30t>,j? ^Xo JLx> K»( o^X "to him bclongeth life, but to us,
that we should flee from death" Aphr. 487, 11; fi^X &-Jjj»d jlEJjj ooi
o*X "he, to whom it is not by nature fitting that he should suffer" Ov.
198, 3: ... j ^W wooi ^X'fU ka ^6^ )J (to^jo "and that the
animals were not excited at coining out, was owing to the circumstance
that ..." Moes. II, 126 v. 787; otoLl ...» i.->nt> <*? Jj^> "W "but
why, dear friend, was it that . . . was written?" Aphr. 26, 20 &c. in count-
less available forms.

Still more frequently a clause with j takes the part of Object. To
this section belong all constructions with j Jb*j. "to be willing, that" ;
j J^a "to seek, that"; j Iju* "to see, that"; ; pot "to say, that"; ; >&.*-
"to know, that" &c. Even a second Object may be represented in tins
way, in cases like JUaa; 6tjLL> sl'bsv avrrjv Kkaiovaav John 11, 33; o»LjL*
o^olL uumj o^{ "his mother saw (liim), that his colour was altered"
Ov. 162, 12.

B. In certain circumstances a clause with } (without a copula) may
even constitute the Predicate-, of course it has always in that case a sense
of purpose (§ 366 A) : (*) ^clVjoKj? JLomj ^*; Ijof tqvto hi 6'Xov y&yovev ho.
wkypodtiaa Matt. 26, 56 P. (similarly S.); cf. Matt. 1, 22; fca^j ^op
( 2 ) vpj^tj ^*jtj Jjoi "and these things have I narrated of this man, that
you may see" John van Telia 73, 1; ja.>j dulj i^*-^.** y.'S*. fcofcoy Jjot
tot^S} otif">j "this winch I have written to thee, dear friend, (is to this
end), that one should do the will of God" Aphr. 75, 6; k*V£! ot^a Jjoio

i 1 ) [As if it read: "now this which happened, (was) in order that" &c]
( 2 ) [IAt.: "and these things, which I have narrated of this man, (have be
order that you may see".]

— 292 — §§ 359. 360.

^j^j jK-o-Oo "and all this, which I have explained and pointed out to
thee, (is) that thou mayst know" = I have written to thee for this end
only, that thou shouldest &c." Aphr. 213, 15; and thus frequently ov\b
? • • • !> — ! • • • » °t^> J»oi, j . . . j ^oj^s ,Aoi, in the meaning "only
with this purpose, in order that" [or "only to the end that"] Aphr. 184, 5 ;
Ov. 65, 17; Ephr. Wis. p. 8 v. 109; p. 87 v. 113; Ephr. (Lmiiy) I, 253 nit;
III, 689 str. 13 &c. (of. § 360 B).

§ 359. The immediate subordination of a clause, to a noun in the
construct state by means of j, is limited to some few eases. } )LJ and
} (j} "in the locality (of the circumstance) that" = "there, where"
("lli'N Mpt?) ; j <^JA "in the time (of this) that", — are by the speech it-
self already treated as equivalent to the attributive constructions j ftlja,
} IW=>. Not merely are they interchanged without distinction (of. ~=>jta
^Sttjoj "at the time when it is rent in pieces" Aphr. 451, 1, alongside
of HAtA»; kajLs "at the time when she died" ibid. 452, 13), but the Re-
ferring form through <J>L may stand at least with ill and j-j (§ 346), and
even the form through o»a ^th ill: Jhaijj «s ^^ui} ill "in the place
where the just are at rest" Aphr. 389, 11; JL\^ joot ^>lj ^o ^> ^^v
iitum oS ty t6 nculiw Matt. 2, 9 0. (looi £>!• ill S.). Notice, that after
} ill, the mere naming of the Subject is sufficient sometimes to convey
the sense of 'existence': v 6mo-j»; ill "where our treasure is" Aphr. 506,
15; cf. 176, 19; ^uot; ill "wherever they are" Spic. 20, 14, 18 (for which
19, 19 ^oomM) >W> of- 20, 5 ,JU; Hi "wherever we are").—} Wi
"sufficing for this, that", "only for this, that" Aphr. 276, 19 ; Ephr. I,
66 C ; cf. Spic. 47, 16 ; then directly "in order that" (in translations of
ha, &; dv). — This use of the Constr. st. is illustrated farther in very
rare cases only: ^-aaJ> v f£i. "at the time that they (f.) go out" Gen.
24, 11; j iij^a "by reason of this, that", "on this account, that" Aphr.
505, 5 ; } v Uo- bjo "what gain is there from this, that" Job 22, 3.
BaMtn § 360. A. Complete clauses are widely rendered dependent upon

Clause de- « ... , . '

pendent -trepositions, by means of j. Above all, the exceedingly common tf
poiiti't"" must te mentioned here (from 3 "as", "hke", which, is no longer extant
in Syriac in its uncompounded state, and }) "when, since, while"; con-
stantly implying time (for exceptions v. § 230), often with a causal or

§ 360. — 293 —

conditional secondary meaning. — So too we have *.=», from ? + a "while",
"through this, that" (Ov. 180, 9), generally "seeing that": — j <S> "from",
"from this, that" (Ov. 199, 1 Sec.), also in comparisons (§ 249 B ^;t.vio
ou^iU <oJ«? ^*a **ki ,o<*.£>.^ "and he has more greed for them, than
they had [for riches]" Aphr. 431, 2), usually "since", for which also
appears t~> ^>; — ? ^$-& "because", also "in order that" (Aphr. 455, 8,
and frequently) ; — j ^i* "on this ground, that", "because", also "in the
meantime", "while", e.g. Land III, 208, 10; so too in incomplete clauses,
where we translate the phrase by the preposition "within": \ nns $L; "^a.
^*>S-. "within twelve days" Jos. St. 61, 7; so ^ioi. . . . j ''W "in so
many days" John Eph. 193, 7; 406, 7; Land III, 206, 24 (cf. Jer. 28, 11
Hex. jjxa. ^IVtj ^.i.) — J S^a ^> "after that" (conj.) &c.

Similarly, } j*a "through this, that", "because'" Ov. 145, 18; 190,
27 &c, and j LoaX "according as", "just as" Bphr. I, 66 D; II, 27 D;
269 F; 271 A. Farther, ; o.s)j "towards the time, that — " Qardagh
(Feige) 87, 7 (■= Abbeloos 97, 1).

B. Clauses with i ^^-ao, and the hke, appear as predicates, — just
as those with } only (§ 358), and convey purpose and cause, in cases
similar to ^.» (OSkatu) ^£*> |»i ) v i Sv-» Juiiia ^!!&oo} j..^ ot**a
^oot^ot^o "for all that men are punished with in this world, (comes) in
order that they may be restrained from their sins" — "is only for this
purpose . . . that" &c. Jos. St. 6, 2 ; j ^a. IJ.QJ/ ^i. Jbwao>J,l |)j oiVa "the
victory has not been given us, oidy because" Jul. 199, 22; kafc^; Ijot
^i^vAj ^^o «X "I have written this to thee, because they think" Aphr.
359, 1; ; "«i^» . . . j otXo bo, Aphr. 166, 1; J ^a. . . . ! !►»>» otaj> boi
Aphr. 403, 10;(*) Ml ^ !oo»j? &&>2> yka-joi JWoj t-u! ^0(0 "this,
my brother, I have informed thee of beforehand, in order that thou
mayest have space ..." Jul. 88, 19. Cf. farther Apost. Apocr. 182 sq. ;
Jul. 219, 18("); 239, 20.

O Of. : 1 ^1 V&jo ^.na loo, iMapaf e^u "he allowed this to pass just be-
cause of the fact, that ... " [lit. "all the inattention which he showed in theBe matters
was by reaBon of this, that"] Jul. 64, 23; and diuab] ailu^A^&a -ott, *«^* XI ^*
"all this happened through the influence of Jovian" Jul. 171, 2.

( 2 ) Read £^a» instead of Iomd.

— 294 — § 361.

0. Apart from the conditional particles v £ and o^s and in many
cases yj, fif. is the only relative, conjunction which stands without }, both
in its meaning of "as long as" and in that of "until", "before that". In
the latter sense V r*. is often employed to bring into prominence the
negative force of the conjunction, e. rj. b| ^ji ]i *i* "before I go" Ps.
39 tilt. &c., but also JxM, ilAs&^o ji>. "before the door is opened" Sim.
366, 25 ; 377, 8. j *ij. only occurs in very rare instances, as in *-uo{ ^
^apt-o wot nw i > > *4*»l <-uJ^3j j2j.o ^f % '^? ^^ " ils 1 Q11 S as the door
of the grave is still shut before our face, and as long as the door of his
mercy is still open before us" Ephr. Ill, 426 E; )i! poi; ,^ "till I say"
Joseph 322, 10 ; 6£»- lt^.i> )!» ji- "before she dies" Simeon of Beth Ar-
sham (Guidi) 13, 4. ; bso^ "until" is more usual.
Abridging- § 361. Clauses with j are widely made to serve as explanatory ad-

brfora" ™° ditions [JEpexegeses, — parenthetical explanations] for abstract substantives ;
cimt™ c ^' e ' 9' Hj^'J 3 H ^mYi ii v> JJ» wtaL \ ,,u y a ««^>! "be perceived my weak-
ness, (which is or consists in this) that I cannot support calamities" Ov.
168, 5 ; j !k-i°V "the curse, that" Aphr. 447 ult. &c. And thus occa-
sionally, to ensure a better connection, the non-significant word {too,
"thing" ("circumstance", "fact") is joined with the » which is acting as
subject; and for this word the clause then forms an Epexegesis: k—<-r°
otX >»*po 009 JLajj (La,! >&.jix» ,jb 6«x ■»(» tloaj "and the fact is well
known, that he who moves it, moves it as he wills" Spic. 3, 6; !^Sn |uo
ui ^d *naJbs«j? iLaat fcoo» "why was it necessary that he shoxild be
allowed to live?" Ov. 67, 12; } !to=j -ot Jikimj "that it is an excellent
thing, that" Aphr. 45, 19 ; Ikx&Xt jnvim ^A. ^o« looo? tloaj loot JLjsp »
"it would not have been possible for us to he truly needy persons" Ov.
25, 25 &c. With (Lory placed after the clause: j^ixjo ju( ■■■--';
{toaj JLtA.; o» v> i > j \ "it is an easy thing for one to praise and bless his
friend" Spic. 6, 14; Ijw ^o lloaj JLju.too loot v^t=»j^ piin^vi iooi JUjo
"and that everything does not happen according to our will, is (a fact)
seen from this" Spic. 9, 26 &c. (*)

( : ) (l«a^ is found with this force even along with the Inf. with V: 1^ ,j
oa&J*^ ll»aj "if it is necessary to reply" Aphr. 374, 18 &o. So also, put absolutely:
tl»3j ^. ^U, y*l "as it appears to us" Aphr, 375 ult., cf. 234, 19,

§ 362. — 295 —

§ 362. Far more common, however, is the practice of attaching Abtidgiog-
ivith j the demonstrative pronoun -6t or !>ot to a clause, which serves in !lIMlT ,
any way as member of a sentence : <a.;-3o ^.y=aj m-HS <JJI t*»? >!°i b ^™ n °
. . . &3j»; ^» |fci»JiJbS> voot^ "this fact,— that he gave command to M ""«
the children of Israel, and separated for them the different kinds of
food, was brought about because they had swerved ..." Aphr. 310, 10;
5 toot !}ot . . . odojojoto "and Ms integrity consisted in this, that ..."
Aphr. 234, 18; j -6t ijot y-l JaS -> toot |) "hut not so great as this, was
the circumstance that" Jos. St. 2, 14; ,-» -°A^ ^6.. =*-j^! -« V -si
ii.»o,_Y JLoi "^.oJUi. — -^.J=>; Ita* "nor is the fact that Jonathan saved
David from death at the hands of Saul, deserving of wonder" Jos.
St. 2, 18; ? ^jf- J?oi jo-nV. "only this we know, that" Aphr. 496, 6;
. . . -» ijot wet )■> -^ wot-tw! U-oot ^otjo "and that these tilings are
so, is clear from ..." Jos. St. 6, 9; w»ajf.*> !joi >s| . . . yosamJ! ^i
"even that he should lend support . . . this too he can do" Spic. 5, 14;
oot-t-ja <-&*> °o*l -w k'? 1 ? "I ' iave assumed this, that he smote us
by their hands" Jos. St. 7, 1; W*. wotofcj? -« r 3 ^ " V s " wMe he
should not part with this (property),— that he is God" Ov. 197, 26 Ac.
Strengthened escpressions:—lb&% ^i- -°t -« v^-i-=? "-4* !)ot -«
"the very consideration that thou, Lord, hast made us, is a motive for good-
ness" Ephr. II, 524 0. — Two such clauses are confronted with each
other through -ot and Ijot in ^ wotX . . . lotSs u^jUIi l;ei -) L-»j
poj . . . Jbj. "for the one fact, that God rested ... has a resemblance to
the other fact that, when he wished . . . , he said" Aphr. 241, 18. Just
as we have in this case } -6*-v, so have we many other combinations of
a like nature with prepositions, e. g. J i?ota, ? -ota "in this, or through
this, that" frequently (? w6i=» Jit — s Ijota loot (I "not from the circum-
stance, that . . . , but from this [other circumstance], that" Spic. 4, 21) ;
j -at^Jo "for this reason, that" Jos. St. 18, 14; 49, 20; ) -it V-^Swa
"for meantime that" Ephr. II, 3 B Ac. There is a considerable space
between the Ijot and the j in Ak-v? wkMJ*> loot t-^Jjo* M*> *'
yiy uamafco V ot*aj ,.*> lotSs? JLijj "for even on this account was his
journey (taken) to that place,— that the thought of God might never be
separated from his soul" Ov. 168, 19. Much more rarely is the masculine

— 296 — §§ 363. 364.

(kx found with such a clause, as in ^jp loot D WU> I.. -~\ &.yi, (,<*<>
li^o! wXtx} "and this,— namely, that I hare called Christ a stone,— I
have not said from my own thinking" Aphr. H, 7.

fxXot may stand with more than one clause : ujoj ■*^ajt ,j> .. \ ~t
*ao|o . . . |e£&, otjjiaj "when Noah heard this, that God commanded
him . . . and that he said ..." Aphr. 235, 8.

§ 363. In certain cases also Jib intervenes as correlative between
a prep, and the conjunctional }. Thus, frequently j Jkofi. "until (that)"
("" **- + i 50 + j)i find in rare instances j jhn-» "while", "when indeed"
Jos. St. 69, 19. (*) Of common occurrence also is > Jbm "as many as",
"as much as", "the more", "as long as" (j Jao "when", "as" &c, § 348).

§ 364. A. y4 "as" (originally an interrogative [—"in what way?
how?" — ] but no longer used as such) may also, with the help of j Jbo,
introduce a clause: locx ot-Uj Jko yJ, "as it actually was" Ov. 172, 20.
Of more frequent occurrence is } £ ^,1 (in imitation of &; fih) "as",
"since", e. g. Ov. 83, 8; 185, 25, also "in order that" Jos. St. 8, 6; 12,
10 &c. — ; ooi. y.{ occui-s always by way of supposition "as if': oot y,J
e*X j y i. rr* ^sai. -?4» "as if a bargain with us had been made by him"
Ov. 295, 20; cf. Jos. St. 31, 16; 33, 4; 34, 18; 56, 14 and 17; Mart. I,
98 mid.; Sim. 282, 10; Ov. 179, 16 &c.

B. In much larger proportion, however, } yj is found pure and
simple. It signifies not merely '"as", but often "in order that" and "so
that"( 2 ) (— &;); also in the negative form Oj y.1 "that not", "lest".
Very often too it stands before the Inf. with X, to bring out more
strongly the notion of purpose: jpvi\j yj "in order to scrutinize"
Ov. 252, 4 &c. So also before prepositional phrases, particularly in the
statement of design, motive or view (= &;): oitiujlt ^.J "as a mark of
respect to Mm" Jos. St. 69, 9; cxSoiojlX; y.i "as a warning to him" Sim.
370 mid. ; and frequently .V? yj "as a . . . ", but also ftotaojLaj yj
"from ostentation" Sim. frequently; (Ujaj y.1 "with cunning" ZDMG

(*) Martin 62, 17 reads thus, to all appearance correctly. Wright has Jj»«.
( 3 ) This use, however, is not equally in favour with all Syriac authors; in
Aphr. it occurs only a dozen times at the most.

§ 364 — 297 — -

XXV, 335 v. 190; ©tftA£»} yj "for his own sake" Ov. 82, 3; yj
JjL^ojo.a? &>g em to <irokv; iKja*maa> yA "shortly", "in few words", often
in ancient writings even.

C. yA without ; is also found in many references. Tims, first of
all, before brief nominal phrases, with the help of which it forms a
relative clause: Ji-^t V-? " as s ) il merchant" = "as merchant" Ov.
165, 22: Iv-Ki* W=> yA "as a son of wealthy parents" Ov. 160 jpaew.;
j Jbiaj yA Kara rdv %p6vov ov Matt. 2, 16 P. (; ';j foovy.V C. S.); yA
^ioj oMfUas "according to the command of the Lord" Ov. 166, 25;
wlo\*-u.y yA "according to my feebleness" [or "in my humble opinion"]
Spic, 9, 14; j lot-so yA "suitably to that which", frequently, &c. Often
before numbers ^i* (JUb yA "as" L e. "about (6>g 3) a hundred years" &c.
— So with Jbp» "to be like" and similar words: Jioj yA loot Jaoj "he was
like a fire" Sim. 271 inf. ifecf 1 ) — If the word with which comparison is
made must receive a preposition, then j yA is used, e. g. {JLotAjLa; yA
I'ihJa* "as in the eminent fathers" Ov. 160, 8; JiA^^j yA "as with
the man" Ov. 168, 9 &c. Or the preposition is withheld, and the special
relation of that with which comparison is instituted is gathered merely
from the context: "that great cheapness will, prevail" )^*fjp ^f»» JLii* yA
"as (were) the years before" = "as in earlier years" Jos. St. 41, 16.
However, there occurs: <— otojxA-L. iUo^; ji^J$.aabV yA JotN.:w |j©£»*
J-fSojt \S^x>} Jlia-jioi^ yA ^.oiXj 06^0 "they considered this world as
an insignificant sheltering-place, but that world beyond as a city which
was full of beauty" Anc. Doc. 101 uU. ; J^u Loaop yA "like an eagle"
Sim. 385 mid. (if this is the right reading; Cod. Loud, gives it with-
out yA).

D. An Object or an Adverbial adjunct may stand in the incomplete
clause which is introduced by yA: Oju^X J^^ ^**** f^ v*"^ y^o)o "and
turned them, as a good shepherd (turns) his flock" Aphr. 192, 11; yjo
tpoA loot n^nv> otlo^j? Jtaig t^Zl ch.i S \ JboJ "and as a mother her
children, he embraced them under the wings of his prayers" Sim, 389 inf. ;
wotajd*m£a «saj yJ> o^d^Ja JLdj "was victorious in his fight, like Job

Q-) Compare Jjo} *$t\ "how does he look?" Joseph 195, 9; 225, 2.

— 298 — § 364.

in his temptations" Sim. 395 inf.\ <o©tLa»j yj toot ^po ©t^>» tot^s )»f oo
JUxLaa; ^o«Kaj*jjlIs.=> JLzs)J^p* "and before Grod liis intelligence continued,
after tke manner of the angels in their service in heaven" Ov. 160, 21 &c.
Yet » y+l is more usual, at least when the Object is put at the commence-
ment of the clause : jLoai-o ^o JJaajSh &1) y+l ©ti j.*^ Iio_.»oof * ^> otA^uo
tin i * fe no; b^ "and carried him off from Judaism to Iris own faith, as
Kabbula also from heathenism to Christianity" Ov. 161, 23 ; (*) Oj,ca^» yj
"as the enemy (ace.)" Anc. Doc. 105, 11.

E. In some cases, however, yJ "as if" without » appears also be-
fore a short but complete clause. Thus frequently wojb <jut y*\ "as
one says" ("as if one should say") ; i-»U y+l "as if thou shouldst say"
= "that is" Isaac I, 184 v. 129; ^oot-X tootl Hqj±*i) jo*» y-{ toot Ji "not
as if they had any righteousness" Aphr. 309, 12 ; t*\^i.t jopo y-l toot JJ
**^ "not as if anything had been revealed to me" Aphr. 101 pam., and
with special readiness in the case of Participles and Adjectives : yx.coS> yja
toot "and (it was) as if he bore a grudge" Moes. II, 116 v. 635; JLjuJ oja^p
^oot-A^ ^£a+£> y*l "accesserunt homines nt qui eos miserarentur" Mart.
I, 197, 15; >&.*-. jj yj t^^o£*. toot "for he was as if he did not know"
Joseph 259, 2 [= Ov. 329, 10]; fioa-iAaoo ty yA woot "be as if thou
wert quarrelling and wert angry" Ephr. (Lamy) I, 259, 10; ^aj y-( "as
if they wanted ..." Jos. St. 56, 19; toot ua**9 y+l "he was as if pleased",
i. e. "he looked pleased" Jul. 143, 2, and thus frequently. We may
often render this yj by "as if". Answering thereto, we have t-»j oot
wotoli^t JJ y+l wO)oK.t "who, while he is, (is) as if he were not" (or "as
though he were not") Ov. 70, 2; and thus often s-otoK*X y+l, y*l
<oe*A»^; also <+jI h*\ y+l Ephr. II, 339 O.ft

(*) Thus an object may farther be found standing even after la&^a "in the
likeness orform of", "as", and its genitive: luKa-J ^oJJk. h»> lw«*a "thou baat loved
me, as David (did) Saul" Job. St, 3, 5; -aw ^ iSfoY IK^a\, ^lj^-j Jl*ia.\. J-»'fij- h-^1**;-^
"for his prayers held creation together, as rafters do buildings" Sim. 384 ult. &c;
of. JXi y>£» JLua^i, lyjftl lftjo,ja y \J.vo "and come in before the judges, as lambs to
the slaughter" Ov. 394, 14.

( 2 ) The construction of »*I, as the above Bhows, is very strongly influenced by
the Greek <bg, but it is at the same time founded on a genuine Syriao idiom.

§§ 365. 366. — 299 —

S 365. As with > *•!, so too with } (La-i, ? .-a-i "so as", "so that" other Ad.

" ' . „ .■ t verba as

and "in order that". The interrogative is in the position ot correlative here, Co „,,^
just as in » M &0. The demonstrative ? ,-o&, > llooi conveys the """■
meaning "so that" with a measure of emphasis : in this case the adverb
does not require to stand immediately before J, as is necessary in
; yj,, ! (uaj.

A demonstrative often appears overagainst a relative clause which
is introduced by an interrogative adverb ; and in other cases also such a
particle is often added: thus ^j>A overagainst j 5^! "just as ... , so";
^4 "at that time", "then", overagainst j -k>pf, ? >*£, t%> and «*i
"there", overagainst } JLa^i &c.

. § 366. A. Following ancient usage, the bare particle ?, however, i »m «ta
is still very frequently employed to mark the dependence of a clause, .i„ no j,, |Sl .
without the special land of subordination being given. Thus, times with-
out number, > stands for "in order that": j>ok*J! ots 0001 ,4a emrl/JW
avr& ha oiyytw Luke 18, 39; ^fAJ! P. = voj^fcoj 0. ha fai/epu&fj
(epya) John 3, 21 ; )i$as ,jo JmJkj) JluoS otfcuisi tr 6io "and then the
Spirit led him away that he might be tempted of Satan" Aphr. 129, i,
after Matt. 4, 1 (weipaa&ijmi) ; ) - .- 8 », S>-. ^» JLajM (I? "that he may not
be overcome by the enemy" Aphr. 129, 9; laij? i}^Aj»l Lpo ,J° !?ot
"tins was done by the Lord, in order to show" Sim. 391 inf. &e.

B. } is also employed very often in a loosely causal connection —
"since", "while" : K4? PfSoXoj )...,. \ ,«; ll^? loot ftojo} ...,;? ,e>oipoa*.
(001 !&j^} vyoCi. iocx "now tlieir hfe was a copy of the church of the
Apostles, seeing that everything which they had, was in common" Ov.
167, 22 ; } JUv-ki "particularly as" Mart. 1, 16 inf., and other passages ;
j oA. -o "woe is me, that (seeing that)" Ov. 137, 5 Ac, and many like
instances', cf. § 358 B.

C. } also serves the purpose, sometimes, of setting down a clause
as a kind of theme, the meaning of which is explained afterwards, with-
out any proper grammatical connection appearing: ^^wkao )) Itaiiio
'« ^y; low ;-j {h~±*i wota -601 ,5»-j'f p "and as regards the cir-
cumstance that the animals did not turn round, as they went,— Simon
was represented by the first &c," Moes. II, 128 v. 796; )S^i «ol?o

— 300 — §§ 367. 368.

,oj( J^^^ ooot t*lU ^> J-Vvd ^ojo i S o ■■ ^ q >i\ o ooot ^JLi "and as
to the fact, that lie said that the dogs came and licked his sores, — the
dogs indeed that camo, are the heathen" Aphr. 382, 18; and thus fre-
quently t»{j, !•**>?, ^V 3 ! "with reference to the (spoken or written)
words . . . , then" v. Aphr. 384, 10; Mart, I, 24, 1] ; Spic. 3, 3 &c. Of.
fx>| «£*jl}6)Io p-t-f ^»? y-i « r u>'^< oiiaiio )o6fJS>> t*>!; h.ot ^; pip
_ikj )1 y,^-\; Itevsoj ofi-^i qjch )»»{J? ^*» yl <;°°t'. ^^ wkdjj
"hut now with reference to this fact, that he said: 'Sodoin and her
daughters shall remain as of old', and that he said to Jerusalem: 'thou
and thy daughters shall bo as of old', — the force of the expression is
this, that they shall never more he inhabited" Aphr. 400, 2.

§ 367. On ; before Indirect Interrogative Clauses v. § 372. Farther
; often serves to indicate the entirely loose dependence, in which direct
speech is joined to the words which introduce it. In all cases, in fact,
j may be used to introduce direct speech, but it is not absolutely ne-
cessary. When however, » is so used, it is very often impossible to
determine whether the emtio is directa or indirecta: y osvn L,=>> ppl
!&-=» may be "he said that Simeon had built a house", and it may be
"he said: 'Simeon has built a house'". Again, in !k»= t^iij w>! the
context alone determines whether it must read : "he said 'I have built
a house' " (when the person who 'said', is identical with the builder), or
on the other hand: "he said that I had built a house" (when the reporter
and not the person who 'said' is the builder). Kil . m i; lo! Ijofcouo
Aphr. 71, 20 is indirect speech: "thou dost promise that thou wilt for-
give"; the variant Jil for Jo! makes of it, without any change in the
general sense, the directa oraHo: "thou utterest the promise 'I forgive'".
§ 368. The } which expresses the subordination may in many
cases be omitted, when that is sufficiently denoted by the context.
Thus, frequently, with Jby "to be willing", . >» fi «i "to be able", -i-i.
"to begin" &c. Of.— besides what is given in §§ 267, 272— : loot Jaj V
la^iJ ~t ~-.^ (I ,s| ouk -rjS-eXev oiioi roug dffiaXjUoic 'sm&pcu Luke
18, 13 (S. Jlal?; C. p-SJ . . . —pol); «jI ookal ui». k*£v* "thou
hast sent me a message, that I am to write them" Jos. St. 5, 3; o£»-; oot
]i{ _j^ •»$ "whom I am obliged to acknowledge" Ov. 163, IB ; oC*. ooijO

§§ 369. 370. — 301 —

iiuu "and gave him to drink" Sim. 359 inf.; k**a~s£- °i^ °°°< t^ 11 ^
vi^x, "they suffered the body to be scourged" Anc. Doe. 105,11;
vy~.I V) „„, . « w ho came forth to he set" Anc. Doc. 95, 1 ; o£s~> 0^.0
loo, IjalSo too, "nor was it of himself that he was rescued" Anc. Doc.
87, 23- jjajb (I o! yojb o! *j| ^^i oSj "if one have the power, either
to he 'burned or not to be burned" Anc. Doc. 87, 16; and many such
instances. Also, when the subordinate clause is put at the beginning:
ov\. JU So,*o "he may wonder" Moes. II, 110 v. 521j 6-*j oo, J^l (I
"if thou art willing to learn" Spic. 1, 15; !?<»» t^of loo, .ao^u *i|o
loo, ■■■. r v. V "and no one was able to snatch the martyr's place" Anc.
Doc. 90, 15 &c.

§ 369. On the other hand, particularly in long periods, the relative ,,
particle j is kept, and it may even be doubled: too, >^x»» ^U
<j,J5aa Jk*L v o^i, >K^ <r ^p ^ IU»j "for it was not a possible
thing that, while they worshipped Baal, (that) they should keep the mne
commandments" Aphr. 15, 4 (so, a farther similar instance in Jmm» do
, . . . , |U»j Spic. 16, 8); ... <> loo, a>a«! -l^?l? K, !o01 l*J
^XJJu, "for he was in the habit, whenever he found us . . . , of asking"
{lit "for he was accustomed that, whenever he found us ... , (that) he
asked us"] Spic. l,3;*»\)i J^>! Mi °^S M ** V° ! r V " 6 "°
) uaw )bj ovi*. usoaj, "and it is not seemly for thee, man, that
through that gate, by which the king entereth,' filth and mud should come
forth" Aphr. 46, 1 (where there is the additional incongruity that a [m
JLUt 06^] is taken up by *> [in oH»]). These examples might be
held as confirmed. The same may he said of some in Euseb. Ch.
Hist In other places, a case here and there, which appears to he-
long to this class, may rest on a copyist's error, just as, on the other
hand, a few cases of omission may do the same. The representations
contained in this and the foregoing section are, for all that, well
established.

§ 370. We have already had a few examples, in which a con- ,„„....
iunctional , did not appeal- at the head of its clause. So, farther, ^o
'm, V VL4A. ,***>! ^M! *>•<>% " 1,llt Ms l ,mVer ™ Mt SUt "

— 302 — § 371.

ficient to render subject to sin her liberty in Jesus" Ov. 160, 20; bio
JiJ J=»j "^Sl? i'jA ow otX "and I wish to know the exact truth" Ov.
163, 10; Li^ai otX oooi <!=»«. j -.Si ; ^ajia Jia^Vl >a| "at times indeed
the emperors permitted him to wear purple" Sim. 349 inf.; s ^a-X o
(ooj <^»£so ^°'fe! ^^^ t^oJ ^i= ^ «; . '-> ^ioj "and he was ready to
meet all wicked emotions with all good emotions" Ov. 169, 8; ooiio ))
; ~» ■ rh io <^£l? b-^S».ojL! (}joa» W "I was not able to bear and endure
the weight of power" Ov. 171, 14 &c. In many of these clauses it would
be very natural to keep to the same arrangement of the words, using,
however, X with the Inf. instead of } with the finite verb, -o too is
occasionally found not at the beginning of its clause: ■»■ ■ ^ JU.ojo
Mj*J <po^',H? a » <£>-£-.oU lj.soj "when Moses slew the lamb, the first-
born of the Egyptians were slain" Aphr. 406, 2; t&ju jj> JLojj |l .sjo
«otdio ■ <oo*.X ^J-»^ Jno ^ ,» ^o "and not even when a thirsty person
drinks from a fountain, do its waters dwindle away" Aphr. 199, 10 &c.
Of course such inversions of the natural order are more frequent in
rhetorically elevated discourse, and with the poets, than in homely
statement.

§ 371. "When several relative clauses occur in a series, they may
be satisfied with one j, even when they are not constructed alike; for
attributive clauses v. above, (§ 344); cf. Jaoij o^ ijfcjtj Jjujoj ^o; ben
K.lij-0 ^ajo "this person, to whom gold had been sent from far, and
who had joyfully accepted it" Ov. 199, 17 &o. Conjunctional: cn^aaj
e*X polo . . . !o(^ "that God had enjoined him . . . and had said to
him" Aphr. 23S, 8 &c. Of course, however, the > may also be repeated
after o : this repetition may likewise take place when there is a separation
of the divisions of the sentence into their individual members, without
necessitating thereby the formation of several complete clauses: lp=,j
" ) •"•> P ^ t»K& Ij^j o! -otaj "that he causo a brother's daughter
or a sister's daughter to livo with him" Ov. 173, 25, where the second ;
might quite as well be wanting.

§ 372. — 303 —

C. INDIRECT INTERROGATIVE CLAUSES.

§ 372. A. In many cases in Syriac, indirect questions cannot be indirect

rogative

01au9E

Propel

distinguished from direct. Even tlie presence of the relative particle »,

seeing that this j may also stand before the oratio direda (§ 367). — Still,
the point here is very often determined by the connection, the enfolding
of the clauses, and particularly the change of person necessary in many
cases of oratio oliliqua.

B. An interrogation which concerns the entire predicate is denoted
in indirect discourse by the conditional particle ^j ("if") "whether".
y\ llr±x* JUL! J ijujj "we shall see if it comes and helps thee" Sim.
332, 3; JJo .otjuu if*, fca^ ,1 Po .faa^l! \k&a>. !*>* **■£!. \J (^U) V
... .1 JJo . . . J "nor (is it known) whether lie was buried under the
bodies of the slain, nor whether he threw himself into the sea, nor
whether . . . nor whether ..." Jos. St. 11, 6. The alternative question,
expressed in the last example by means of the repetition of ^ )), may
also be denoted by oj: ooi «oi^> !&-£» <*»*> vf J^^^r *-f^ ' 0O) '
)) o! "the thief does not know whether the master of the house is within
it or not" Aphr. 129, 13 &c. j ooMj often stands for ^! (§ 374 B):
kjj .^~j « eoyil A •^'^ »pso\. o ■ ■'•' f "consider first in thy thoughts
whether thou dost forgive" Aphr. 71, 21.

The dependence is more emphatically expressed by prefixing ! to
) : r. ™Jcv (kajto >^-Ai. ,!; ^.poto oi^. oooi ^M i v io teat fanftui-
rrfia» airdv Xiyovrs; el 'i%saTiv toi; adpfSaaiv S-efairevoai Matt. 12, 10
(C. j oot ^j) ; Kil ^i. Ji'JLao Jj3^?j ^u.,i«. ^£»-»=> 4? aai - "jk^J*
"thou hast farther asked me, whether righteous and just persons have at
all times been found on the earth" Aphr. 446, 6; J U .t viN oti-joK*.!?
!&.&ji iijjt o~oot Jj "that I may know Christ, whether he is the pure
truth" Ov. 163 14 (where the interrogative clause is a land of 'epexegesis'
or rather second object; v. above, § 358 A, and several examples in
what follows).

— 304 — § 372.

C. Even when the interrogative concerns the Subject, or individual
points in the Predicate, ; may precede : Jjaajaaf ^oaloj o_l*j} ^aa, iuu&J;
—o)J6j^ "that they deliberate as to whom they should institute as bishop
in Edessa" Ov. 170 ulL ; wojoJW ^aJo JLaJj ©ii-? i*x=i ci°tS. "his fellow-
monks learned where and how he was" Ov. 1G9, 23; {if*, oot jn > *\ uo
<xLoX •jh-'.Jj Jj^aJ} "and the truth knows, how to hold thee to herself"
Ov. 163, 12; Jsoa. ou^a Ja*a.» J^qjiudI |*-Jb>? ©£»«•! Ito^jjai foot ?jl0 t-o
loot loJLo "while he saw his dignity, — with what a humble demeanour
he stood at the head of the people" Ov. 189, 22; wfc^pjj "when" Aphr.
19, 6; 170, 1; JL&J ^f "whence" Ov. 190, 4; K^fcoL *»■»? "how rich"
Ov. 191, 20 &c. 'With the interrogative placed in the eud of its clause:
^.04-k-J <«■»? J^^As* ^f^ * *^°J4 9^ "who is it that says, what are
these wheels?" Moes. II, 104 v. 438; and with the j placed at the same
time at the commencement: '^■-uU ^^o{ <^9 tk ^rfa ^ J( *i? ** ya^ait!
"I will make known to thee also, from what time these causes acquired
strength" Jos. St. 8, 3. So also in headings of themes, when the govern-
ing word is not given: J-^j-jao .— ©t»6ja ) 9 i nrn<* t )Jaa> (j-ao^ foot ^aJ}
"How the blessed llabbiila became Bishop in the town of Edessa" Ov.
170, 21 &c.O

D. But this j may also be wanting: ^=»K:»o I^Sl, ^\4 t. i . o C l
"(that) thou show me, what works are demanded" Aphr. 5, 4; Jj.» Jjluj
ota* tJa-aJ <*aj ^A-Jbo . . . &juajtka. <*a. ^jj "let him see, what will
be suitable for the service . . . and by what things lie will please him"
Aphr. 8, 13 (together with . . . o^X J^afi^o J*»? JUuva &$i "man be-
comes concerned, as to what is requisite for him (who) ..." Aphr. 8, 2);
Ji» «a_A.» <oota; "wherein is written, what. . . " Spic. 13, 8; ^j-»t{ Jl
oMio loof U» "it is not known what became of him" Jos. St. 11, 5;
a*>jJt| Jj-a*i — ju»o "and see thou, how they have distinguished them-
selves" Aphr. 60, 5; l'*sul v^a J^qj io-uJj "that he may show how great
honour he has bestowed [dispensed]" Sim. 391 inf. (Cod. Lond. J^aj)i
v^^Lt {£s\^aw ^A*! ^» .?n\jin\ ki\ Jaj (jot — ch ftofo "thou art
desirous to learn this thing, by what causes it (the war) was stirred up"

( l ) Notice farther JiW^j V*. on "because" John 5, 16 0. S. (P. has merely j).

§ 373. — 305 —

Jos. St. 7, 22 (notice the demonstrative before the interrogative clause) &c.
In all tliese cases » may also be found.

B. Just as, in many cases, a direct question is really an expression
of wonder, so too is it with many an indirect question: Ml °i-»aj <=>Ho
o^X JooU! io*. !*» "and Iris soul grows elate, that to such a master [tit.
'to what sort of master'] he has become worthy of belonging" Moes. II,
1.16 v. 639; and quite a similar instance is given ibid. p. 164 v. 1384. So
^-o( luiwpoo Jboopo (i|j> !s^» M f3a.^o JL«.J> |=>! M? !o£41 wM3.iioo
"and praised God, that such a stern and rapacious father had begotten
such a just, generous and compassionate son" Land II, 159, 24; 6) vV »»>
K .... J ^1 .SEja, ^!o Ipoi JLa\» ^-(» Jjoooi); il o-i-svA jtX
"Woe to the empire of the Romans, that it has lost such emperors, and
met with such instead (of such) I" Jul. 79, 19 ; "Bdessa is in mourning"
Jui*>6» ) ■ »>0 " ^»- >=&— °J* .«s,i. aii>? "that such a man, instead of
such, is sitting on the throne of the Roman world" Jul. 123, 2 (lit.
'who instead of tvlwm').

The conjoining of two interrogatives in one clause, as we have it
in these last cases, is somewhat rare. Another instance, however, is
found in ! r ! ^> JLajs Wj ^otJ-'X ^l k*> "try both of them, as to
which of them is the stronger" Ephr. (Lamy) III, 681 str. 25. But it is
only in translations from the Greek that this construction appears with
any considerable frequency.

§ 373. J&s-j, )<>?, originally "for what?", then "if perhaps", "that i»\., to.
perhaps" or even, when it is an expression of doubt "lest perhaps" [ire
/brie] is properly an indirect interrogation. The j here indicates de-
pendence. Moreover a proper governing word is often wanting, and the
notion of uncertainty, found in the connection, suffices,— so that we
may translate by "perhaps", "perchance". And thus a farther additional
} may he prefixed to the ? (which has here become grammatically in-
distinct) in order to express the dependence more clearly. )&X is m
strictness independent, and introduces at first an independent clause,
but we deal likewise with it in this place on account of its being tanta-
mount in meaning to the compound form. Examples: *j)I )*iX -M<
M yo! Spa, fnjbsvi thwt Matt. 8, 4 V. (0. S. JUaXj); W*s i-s^J*^

— 306 — § 373.

;o.<A-» oot JLjoot-.? y/ 'lovhafav b 6ed( /xovov Rom, 3, 29; UMo Jbo{ JmSv.
tfoOSs ,j» uSv ^i.^ "arc mother and wife haply licttcr to mo than God?"
Mart. I, 251 inf. — "Ho does this or that" —otoaja o , itij J^iso "(in the
hope) that perhaps lie may take him into favour again" Aphr. 150, 5;
"are asked vo^^j (tmi^? ^ovJ'o • ■ • *J-h «Jjf °M> M°^*? whether those
who oome may have seen them, and whether those who go may
see them" Joseph 193, 9 (var. hoth times with Jbo£^;j) [= Ov. 294, 1 6] ;
j oi^ luJUI ja^ Jbfl^ ; "would that I were found (thought he) such
that &c.l" Ov. 171, 23; J-ri\; ko^nX. l^am ol JloiiX Kj! .sio joti.
ya^. vij.Sl.kj "think upon death thou too, O wise and learned scribe,
lest haply thy heart he uplifted" Aphr. 427, 18; "seek ye for him JUoii.}
oiot^-ua ^■" ^i2S»i»o ^>L IJboo ^i. !U£» *-6£». lest haply he may have
gone into that cave and he dying there, and w r e ho punished for his guilt"
Sim. 283 mid.; lla-iVo n V , is ^.^ajul ^lii J^o^j ijoi > %o»- pojj (uo
) -v.« . .tS* "^^ lit Js^^ o« Jbo^-; ol vmjl> Jbo*f.»; "what shall we say
about this? Is it that the children of Israel have received the kingdom
of the Highest? God forbid! Or is it that the people have reached some-
how to the clouds of heaven?" Aphr. 96, 8 &c— o! K£oi» K.JLo-.;jd p;
|ij ^«i piyvu; elg ksiiov Tpi%ti> iy tlpajuov Gal. 2, 2; to! i^no pjo "it may
he thou thinkest" Jul. 47, 1. — ,oo(to^m-u V^io J**^!? ,oov\-} ao)i|
1)6 ]}i ySf*9 ,^^^\ ^oji-fiu "that we he concerned about them, so that
they should not, through their need, lie obliged to do anything that is un-
seemly" Ov. 217, 16; tpot-uo ji^ojKi l*iX;? oooi ^ui "were afraid that
he. would take vengeance on them" Jos. St. 19, 21 ; JboXj; oiuo ^a>»
Jao ~ ■ ~* "is afraid of it, lost the waters should increase" Aphr.
145, 15 (varjvi\;) ; |»i» otJ*» ^oJvi ^ ^o JUo2>*}} ogjjoai. isiok»io
"and will listen to his command, in order that perhaps, on account of our.
request of him, he may build" Jul. 110, 1; '^Ji>! ^.J-J? ■ajultto
. . . o»X H^j Jt»N; J^x; ~<xoSt^oj "and Daniel thought, that on ac-
count of the sins of the nation, he might perhaps remain . . ." Aphr.
58, 14 (where j is separated from JboX;; var., however, Jhl^-;;
■^jb, Jvi\; afterwards) &c. — pr*" <; i • tf'y p?! • • • Is* ' *>"'> »
"let him examine . . . whether in any respect they may be deserving of
reproof" Ov. 176, 6; ^J^lo ^ o>X jiil pi) -oiaiio-j IK*jqjuo ~(j>

§ 374. — 307 —

_oio6fi-u} Ikuouuo "he shortened the measure of his days, that the
measure of his sins might not become too great and overpowering"
Jul. 5, 24.

By far the. most common of these forms is ba2^S (without } be-
fore it).

D. CONDITIONAL GLAUSES.
§ 374. A. The condition which is set forth as possible is expressed *.'
by ,{. With the negative we say )J V J or ijl. The v | which introduces a
clause occasions no farther change in its construction. The Act. Part,
mostly serves as its verb (§ 271), the Impf. not so often (§ 265). When
the past is referred to, which of course occurs much less frequently in
these clauses, the Perl is employed (cf. § 258), or the Part. act. with
ioo) (§ 277), or even, though not often, the Impf. with loot (§ 268 A).
Besides, ^1 is frequently followed by a Nominal clause. The apodosis
may agree with the protasis in time and in construction, but it may also
differ from it in many ways, without thereby causing any deviation from
the leading rules of clause-formation which have been described above.
We give a few examples in support of the most important cases. Part.
,.ivi ^pov^ ^jsjtoo h^l ><S>3J^*ao y.V-»-» ,io "and if thou gloriest in thy
sons, they are torn away from thee" Aplir. 84, 13; oia ^uaj Jiai )J!
o*a vsjs )&>. Id& "if be (the dog) does not run out and bark at it, the
master of the sheep beats him" Ov. 138, 20 (compare § 271). So with
i>.l and k'V, e. tj. (laS- ^jp! J»%p k^- vj "if there are no righteous
persons, (even) the wicked perish" Apbr. 458, 9. — Impf. : poji i-^ ,!
. . . 1 -^ uj V . . . "for if he is fasting . . . , let him not mingle ..." Aphr.
45, 22; v o^*.tl- ^iso Mit vpU<Uo ^m . a ^U V i(1 <l " Dut «f vou wil1
not be convinced, but continue to resist, then you will be held in con-
tempt by us" Ov. 175, 3; !^^ ^$=> Jbofcjol. ,! "if it becomes blind, the
(whole) body has grown useless" Aphr. 457, 11; t^cue c**aJ !>i» a -?°i
•jfc^.*- _sp J3its£ai A yX "the truth makes itself known to thee, if thou
dost renounce thine own knowledge" Ov. 163, 16 (and thus very fre-
quently, a Part, in the principal clause, overagainst an Impf. in the
conditional clause; cf. § 265). Both Impf. and. Part, alternating: ^fo

— 308 — § 374.

ot-\. ^i JJ »oot.X. ^aJiv \io wotoj^iias ^kXo (ot^ och j-uj juJ (jqJ
(ot^S oot j-"? "and if any one makes confession (Impf.), that there is only
one God, but transgresses (Part.) Ins commandments, and does (Part.)
not do them, then it is not true for him that there is only one God"
Aphr. 498, 5 (of. line 12; v. 301, 17; 339, l).—P 6r f. Jioj ^oaj «JfcJ ^
^»V-^-^- **aa*> i*X waot "if thy father has brought fish, give me five
pounds (of them)" Sim. 273 mid.; lj-=»J fl.ojaa£a lio_iao-©t ^^o ^j ^
JLjfc.3.i "but if faith lias been injured by unbelief, then the soul is lost"
Anc. Doe. 98, 12; o*a. y»v JLuuJt» *3? h_oJ |fc«j»Jk«aa j^sdVlI JLu^juo ^
jili^a "if Christ has been laid as the foundation, how then dwelleth
Christ also in the building?" Aphr. 9, .14 &o. Of. ^-{j-ooj} )s'6^ y£±. ^
. . - K»fi-Ki *&y ^ Jbo_o ooot ^*vijlv> . . . "if the priests of Israel were
accustomed to perform the service, how much more is it fitting for us . . . !"
Ov. 172, 14 &c. For examples with the Impf. and too* v. 268 A. No-
minal clauses: . . . wjLu . . . j y^ oot JL^J^ \i "if it is a disgraceful thing
for thee that . . ., then see . . . " Ov. 162, 8; K*aj Jj-a;-*- ifc^o^a )oJja ^
pa.xftq j't-o^a "if even the remains of an idol's temple are standing in
any place, they shall be destroyed" Ov. 220 %men. &c. We have several
cases together in . . . )ia\^ JLz»jo Jar.M^N, ^£>\ owo . . . fo^Ss oot t-^> ^
. . . ; \i-aj, ,oo£^ ^-oi JJ Jiio > ^^io "if Clod is one (Nominal clause) . . .
and has given men their nature (Perf.), and takes pleasure in this (Part.)...,
why then did he not give them such a nature, that . . .?" Spic. 1, 6.

B. For ^{ there often stands j oot ,J, } oo*j£ "if it (is) that" e. g.
,ooj^» J^pfc^oj oopf "if there is necessary for them" Jos. St. 13, 18; oopf
v 6_ojj» "if they should conquer" Jos. St. 1.3, 13; yV K-fy w^a Vj^i oot ^
— oMjip{ ... "if thou therefore, my son, hast . . .,' then tell it" Spic. 2, 3 &c.

C. "We have already seen that several clauses connected by o may
stand after ,(. It is true that ^ may also be repeated with o: in that
case conditional clauses are often elliptical: Jbiu^> ,jo (Uiai^. ^ "he it
for death, or for life" Jul. 169, 19; J*aj |);o Jj-^JL=» lov* <Jo {^ Nvit ^1
"be it word or work, in season or out of season" Ov. 181, 22, and mani-
fold cases resembling these (cf. e. g. Jos. St. 50, 19). How ^o and
ot "or" may be exchanged here, is shown by the following example: ^
JLaiasoj ho* )ua~£sA ^o J.*=»v^» vf° *£oyts> ol «a-^=» o( ^tt^a b\ ,oj{ f>Q}\^

§ 374. 309 —

.,._„_ "whether they arc in Edoni or in Arabia, in Greece or in

Persia, whether in the North or whether in the South, they observe this
law" Spic. 19, 14.

I). We have another ellipsis in Jl Jo or J|!o "if not" tl. (J. %J Jl 4°
pojbii. o.V (yar. Jlto) "if not, I have to say" Aphr. 441, 7; so 117, 14;
Ov. 214, 11. Of. k-ow j^.i. J) Jlto "otherwise (if it were not so,) I would
not have done it" Jul. 245, 26.

After Jl) "if not", "excepting", "except that", "other than", sen-
tences which are incomplete are very common. In this application a
farther ,1 often comes in after JR. Examples: K>t ^ia o r nat! p^ Jl
„^„\ n..v« vjjio oil Jli i-y^- "for men have not been com-
manded to do anything, except that which they are able to do" Spic. 5, 2 ;
, ^jo J)! ^ <;tsao IJbutaSi v °ov^ oKatf . . . > »*=->a-o <•> Juo ^o
"and why is it, dear friend, that . . . there was written for them 'four
hundred and thirty years', except because. . .?" Aphr. 26, 20; ^> ! t ^.o
|| y , JloMj )J! j) , ^~»> ^ooS^. Of=i^ Jl ILii»? "and not one image
made they for themselves to worship, excepting the image of the calf'
Aphr. 312, 20; fu p,J> Jit l"jS ' m ;V v HI ^^=> ^ I 001 ^^ "
vaijwoja JLuoti "it was not permitted to him to slay the Paschal lamb
in any place, except before one altar at Jerusalem" Aphr. 218, 22, while
line 12 has ;o.uV. pi*»oJb <i Jit JlujS j^a* °A- tow ^i H "it was
not permitted him to prepare the Paschal lamb, save at Jerusalem only" ;
Je>! J Jit ! j~ N -^^i out Jlo Kod oS&el; iwiyimaKsi tov uldli si pS) b xaryp-
Matt. 11, 27; lot*- fw <t Ht h-4, *^ oilsl; ayccSv; si f4 s& freog
Luke 18, 19; <o-o,j Jjia <! Hi (><"! \*h y^~ <f>! J" 00 " il " d wlmt are
the stones of fins but the children of Zion?" Aphr. 85, 7, where there is
a var. *^=> Ht without the v t; JioV* 4 " ! ^f? V -" 1 <? " wl '° are tlie lrailflers
except the priests?" Aphr. 10, 18; Ha nm . °> i <i Jl) Jiua vOohjd *it *a Jl
-j-^i -Uj) Jilo ■ . . "no one of them remained alive hut the bishop . . .
and two other men" Jos. St. 29, 4; '© »i Jl! . . . Juo=> "in what . . . except
in . . .?" Aphr. 57, 11; i'^s^vt HI ... ^ 9^> "*> understands . . .
except the perfect?" Ov. 185, 19; and thus frequently. With these
Particles beginning the sentence: ovX J ri-vm ; tow K^ Mot If" vi J"
"and only one way was there, which led up to it" Jos. St. 15, 5. An

— 310 — § 374

entire clause stands after <I J)l in A- m . Qi^ll ^ ill oj.&*6*iOL^. Jil uuuxaao j] \j{q
"and I cannot believe, without being convinced" Spio. 2, 14; ouixaio Ji
A^t-* v! W • ■ . o^pft minV lo{ "thou canst not understand . . ., if thou
hast not known" Ov. 162, 26.

From the meaning "if not" is developed the adversative meaning
"however, but, yet", hi which sense Jll is oftenest met with.

E. After the concessive particle ^s| = , { ,a| "oven if, if even"
a complete clause may follow, e. g. !ood . . . v sps!l Jioi !>o.A^. t sJ /can
T§ Spsi Tourif smr/TS . . . yevyiisTai Matt. 21, 21 (0. S. merely ,!) ; ~ai
Um ljao S., )mj t<"aj ^si P. km tmod-dvft tyasTai John 11, 25; ^ajo
U-i^o Jl ■ ■ ■ ifc^aJ (-^"for even though he worships . . ., still he is
not found fault with" Aphr. 335, 18 ; JLai);; K>; om*> i£j1| JL^, ^a!o
"and even if he has sinned, yet the seed of the righteous has been pre-
served by him" Aphr. 462 uti.; Jba-op> us Jooil JU! . . . j (oou i-^,-sJ
•••?<?»- li-U-o "for even if it happens that . . . , let it yet be firm and
sure for us, my sons, that ..." Jul. 8, 27 sqq. (where JH, as frequently
happens, occurs at the beginning of the apodosis) Sua. But very often -si
is followed by a mere fragment of a clause, e. g. ^m jUiia ^ -a) (lolo
lt«&y "and thou hinderest from prayer though it were but one man"
Sim. 328 mid. &c; cf. jo^l; ^s( ^ J,! ^ "I am afraia eYen t()
mention" Ov. 196, 14. Often it signifies "though it were only", "at least"
(like k&i - Kai i&t), e. g. *Ma\j JUuaX ,j»!j ou» 0001 ^~ -
v aai-aj no! vrccpaKuXow airoi ha k&v tov Kpaoir&lov roO f/tariov airou
tyumai Mark 6, 56; ua.6,1 uuoi^tj ui^a ^^ ^J, ., Ulat my
acquaintances might remember me, for the sake of my words at least"
Ov. 137, 5; l^X ia ^ ^s| „j^ "let me dwell at least on the out-
skirts of the pasture ground" Bphr. IH, 576 D; !&*.) ^v wO)aa<i2
JWj j-a ^>( Jbaaj. ^ H!„ !laa-4a ^a| JUiJUa % wdo^Iij,
"Blessed is he who has been found worthy to obtain'it (Paradise), if not
through righteousness, at least through grace,-if not by works, yet by
(Divine) compassion" Ephr. Ill, 576 A &c.

E. We have, in the following sentence, an example of an ellipsis in
the principal clause being made up for, by the contents of the conditional
clause: ^ d? oa,3 J^**^ ^ "if they perseouted Chlist) so ^ (wiu

§ 375. — 311 -

they persecute) us" Aphr. 484, IB ; v. also farther sentences there of like
character. Other ellipses occur in IjfuJ col Ijnuj ^o oot ^.> ii-fi-l v>
"if (there is) honour, it is ours, and if discredit, it is also on liotli sides".
Ov. 151, 17.

9, <! is found almost always at the beginning of its clause. Very
seldom do we meet with cases like Jii pJLo ,! ko°> fo&sl |fc~»-S ^s~
"if I stand upon the summit of all heights" Hoes. II, 82 v. 83 ; and thus
also 80 v. 79 and 81.

Exceptionally ^ is set down twice in vj . . . ! ^*><W> ^" '-*•%» <i
Jhui^ ^o-dJLi ^>-oi r » "for if of all kinds of food which . . . , if man eats
of them" Aphr. 307, 11, where the sentence is taken up anew.

Item. The insertion of ^ in relative clauses to express the indeter-
minate ("any", "somehow") is an imitation of the later Greek style, e. g.
yaotmj ,!> M oot Saris i«» hnartpfyto Is- 36, 6 Hex. ; ^o-ai*. yo! <!» ?**>
S ti lav Urn i/Oi John 2, B Hark.; uoiki ■ • • v ! ! -*• ^? ^^ '**%
el nil... sfjaroMKpiro Lagarde, Reliquiae B7, 5 &c, and similarly, here
and there, even in ancient original writings. Thus in particular v i kas>
"how much soever", "although"; JjSjo ,1 J*ia "however much he exerts
himself" Jul. 9 vtt.; (jl-^>- J^a ,! Jboj> "however pitiful he might he to
the eye" Ov. 188, 20 ; cf. Philox. 47, 16 ; B4, 21 ; 264 Ac. Instead of this
expression we have also Jbaa ^o, Laud III, 210, 19, 21; 211, 6 Ac; and
even <! Jhaj> v! Philox. Epist fol. 13 a, 1, 4.

§ 375. A. The condition which is set forth as impossible is ex- .
pressed by a*. This particle is generally followed by the Perf. which is
so much in use for hypothetical clauses (§ 2B9), or by the Part, with too,
(§ 277) ; the Perf. is also strengthened occasionally by toot. In the principal
clause the Part, with loo is very generally found. There is no sharp dis-
tinction between what is represented, by way of Condition, as still unfinished
(si faceret), and what is represented as completed (.« fwisset). Examples:
jjna^a Jo« ^ ,016. |k*>°- <±.^U V °^> KOtl sl m hio^^rjaail
alil/iipai CKSimi oiK av £OT*iy itaaa aapl Watt. 24, 22; l*aj iuia* o^>
low pJLb H j^aV "if the soul abandoned the body, it (the body) would
not continue in existence" Moes. II, 90 v. 221; oo« J*^? *mo>»S a*,
loot )■■-■;- (I toopo^. !)« "if laws belonged to climes, this would be

— 312 — § 375.

impossible (to be)" Spio. 18, 25; loo) t-ni JJ - . . jl»> q^, "if ho had given
a sign . , . , lie would not have been burned" Anc. Doc. 87, 22 ; i-*^. oSs
?lo=»^l foot KA <i=>i, "for if tlicy had been converted, there would have
boon penitence" Aphr. 54, 5; foot {jSt» foot ^o( aSs Ji^La &l "even the
children, if lie had begotten them, lie would have rescued" Aphr. 352, 10;
loot ©f*~» foot JJ . . . Jfco-Q *3? )^>©t ...» JjloJ foot f=*±*U ^-^^o^s "for
if he had been made so, that . . . , then the good even (that ho would do)
. . . would not be his" Sju'c- 4, 4; JJ loot 6^K*f otloX. ^=»>Xaca o^\
o£*- loot Jn"i« "if it (f.) had always been with him, it would not have
allowed him ..." Aphr. 128, 3; loot v**J.K*> . . . loot \^ o.^, si ffiet
. . . eypyyopr/aev av Matt. 24, 43 ; JU.-J-* . . . foot *aja&ao . . . lufc& i^^ex^
loot "for if the rain had weakened . . . , it would be clear ..." Aphr.
450, 14; foot «juo**» oot axe foot «**>&*» ajLuKtu ^,yiVt o2^n "if
everything were ministered unto, who would he be that ministered?"
Spio. 3, 24; jX*lf JJ alSx o^* (oot <-w-a3 ttakov yjv avria si ovk sysvvyj-9-rj
Matt. 26, 24, cf. Mark 14, 21 ; ooot ^.vi.n JJ o^s ^o©^ foot ^As "it
would be better for them, if they did not rise" Aphr. 169, 12; JLoo oSs
loot "if it had been possible" Ov. 201, 1; JUj;^ Jj-aot loot f*a>- qSSs.
loot Jjjbb JJf loot wotoK.| )J of *ph\ oot "if man had been made in that
way, ho would not have been for himself, hut would have been an in-
strument" Spic. 3, 4.

Occasionally, with the naturally definite olfcs, the suggestion of
unreality, given by the Perf., remains quite in abeyance, and the
particle is then followed by a clause with the Impf. or Part., or by a
Nominal clause: ^X loot Jaov U-*~ 6vX nscoKju o2^j "which, if we
listened to it (f.), would bring us woe" Jul 210, 7; oot? foop o^s Jlaf
ujuiajfco ojooiI JjoKq "not even if it should happen that the tyrant let
mo go free" (where the hypothetical Perf. is in the dependent clause)
Jill. 84, 7; yoaXo ,oM o*\. o^6^»- JL^; ©t-u-> JLuao t-s^ Q^«
^oK»( ^opL "for if the odour of the sinner were to strike one who ap-
proached him, then you would all flee" Ov. 140, 20 (whore there is a var.
,oK*oo) ^ofrifc o»t ^oKif) ; a^tQAfc| o^>; JLa.a...o Jb*a- K*^A o^n "if
thou didst seek it, sea and land would sing thy praise" Moes. II, 78
v. 45 ; k*aj o^y "if thou didst wish" ibid. v. 39. Cf. floj^bo JJ o^s

§ 375. — 313 —

Jbu o*so! ^j W$j> . . . JbcEvSS,. wi»w >o»M> lot^>! "if the protection iif
God iliil not embrace the world, life would no doubt have come to an
end" Jos. St. 4, 14; JLxAi. fykuo ) v <N v-> c»=» ^>ouM >l °^ " if they
were not ill the world, it would dissolve" Aphr. 457, 14 (where there is
a var. !o« l*K*»); otfc4 ^ low js^a» . . • IKJi*. i»ai ^ kj eC*. "if
wo had a pure soul . . . , astonishment thereat would strike us dumb"
Woes. IT, 160 V. 1307 (and so 164 V. 1357, while 166 v. 1385 has oS.
low JM); [f=^jl <J»- low >oii>* . . . (■-•=>- U^m. <i^o "and were the eye
clear . . . , the throng would astonish us" Moes. II, 164 V. 1355; ^Ai a*,
loot va| . . . (i<x ■ , . uul "if one had power . . ., then would this (one) . . .
be higher" Auc. Doe. 87, 16.

B. The clause with oSv is subjected to a certain dependence in
eases like S-ajS o^s ,.» aSv )j| JU»j JL»o mi u MX« si ^ avr^yj Luke
12, 49 (P. (il Jb>jo) ; -ot-k-jU' oSs JU-ot Kii v^.^ "thou wishest now,
thou liadst seen him" Moes. II, 160 v. 1319 (and so y. 1320) ; J*u>o
Ka^i. c-j ~*> °^ v *^ 001 <*i " IVR & ' 10w lntlc l 1 y° u ™hed, it had already
gone' down" Jul. 23, 22. Of. ibid. 81, 25; 104, 26. The notion of a hy-
pothesis has in these eases passed over into that of a wish.

G. With (I oSs accompanied by a noun, the idea of existence does
not need to be expressly denoted: Jui. (J v o-iot (ksoo- -i-o) J-(.» V 0^,0
; ~»~ ^ low /cat si ny /ciipiog (8j) to>48s>sei/ rag yjfjipag (iKshag) o£k
av iadd-y; waaa sap% Mark 13, 20 (S. differently); o f =^j (u^joro (I o*>
"had it not been the offence, which they committed" Jul. 50, 27; oS«
-oiaal *jd aaaj (ii^. C° °« V "and had he not been, then neither
would there have been (§ 339) any revelations from his Father" Moes. IT,
11 8 v. 654. The construction of > (I oSv = )) oSs is exactly like the latter
in syntax: o|U* V **>*. JLJb? ha; ^> |) a& "if the famine had not
become severe, be would not have allowed him to come with us" Joseph
242, 9 (Ov. 320, 15); a£voo (i! .si (il i ^sivi J-oo-fa? J -iS-nX ; |) a*.
k-oot "had I not been made subject to the king of the Persians, I too
would have gone up" Sim. 328 iiif-C)

P) I would not like to maintain confidently that even in k-o.il! Jl . . . j «*.
"if I did not . . . think" Jul. 132, 18, the , is correct,

lOUuttinil 111

Clan

— 314 — §§ 376—378.

I f« «& § 376. In rare cases ^i occurs instead of oSs with conditions clearly

assumed as impossible, a. y. in i-%,1 1 * l< ^ =^- *-! U-k* Pr 10 *■*•%» \!
Junoiai 6»^ loot (U Wii% ^=t ^» pfDoi* Jkij. "for if cattle had
any advantage in keeping the sabbath, the law would have hindered them
from these impure things before" Aphr. 233, 8 (only one Codex); ,|o
\i-iUl <;°=>i WsS r ^aA <t xla low JL&* (1 Pr» " for if {t were llot in tllc
power of our hands to do anything, we would be the instruments of others"
Spio. 20, 22 (in the parallel clause oSs).
(ii«u.«. 8 377. The great variety of Conditional Clauses could only be

7.,'lmM. represented here by a few leading types. But, besides, there are as-
sociated more or less with Conditional Clauses proper, the Disjunctive
Conditional, with o!— o! (§ 258), the Temporal Conditional, with j 1*>
(§ 258), as well as the Temporal, with ; -kspi, fO (§§ 258; 265 &c.) and
many others. ,j> takes a concessive meaning by the addition of Ck%,
more rarely u^p "much, greatly, even" ("even while") — "however
much", "although", e. (J. Ju^jstoio Jko^ioL -ewa^i a^ ,j> .3(0 "and al-
though he builds it up, it is still called a crack" Aphr. 145, 10; ^ fj>
JLtims! ,00, ^=j>Ka>! woiwja "although Xenaya [Pliiloxenus] was at
the time in Bdessa" Jos. St. 25, 11 and frequently thus.— >-^» ,-ao
oSJJ>! W vQ->{ ij!° Jj»? "however much he tried and punished them, still
they did not do well" Aphr. 402, 13.

STRUCTURE OP PERIODS. INVOLUTION AND OTHER
IRREGULAR FORMS.

Structure
of I'oriodH.

§ 378. The fondness of the Syrians for the construction of rather
long Periods, founded on the genius of their language — has been not a
little fostered by the model which the Greek Style presented. Those
periods are produced by the co-ordination and subordination of such
clauses as have been tdready described, or others like them. The number
of possible ways, in which the known elements may in these individual
cases be combined, is unbounded.

§§379—381. — 315 —

8 379 The license given in the. arrangement of words in a. clause i™i.iin,
is in part idso extended to the arrangement of the clauses, winch serve ing0t „ 8
as members of a period. For the purpose of being brought into stronger ™»£
relief, the governed clause is occasionally placed a, long way before the »»-»'"•
governing; and not seldom an express Involution or enclosing of one
clause within another, makes its appearance. Of. ), » . «v> )n*! j.^^ Jaoo.. ^
js^slJJ^} o^ )l jojm ^» txloiao vsajju? -oio^- -VJ?U "for, from the
day on which the name of Christ was named over him, by nothing was he
persuaded to resolve to satisfy his hunger" Ov. 182, 12; U^m. ,-j (lots
,_»; \ohSbL JsCiia*. MCjjj ^ji oii otlc^j! tio±-l !k»8-? ^^,
oooi ^.tyilioo «1^»^=> iwSs! U>°> "but who can describe the wonderful
changes', which, in this stolen quiet of the few days of bis prayer, were
renewed in his soul by the spirit of God?" Ov. 185, 18; Lpoi fc»}» ^^X
<uj ^> ;; jij v»!o "e», qui vidt, dixi rf (Vico cos faciles esse" Spic. 6, 4;
Ul ,~<; k**i*. Ito>o> ltc*»sol ^-» t^ " et 2"""' haec mimUKa
magna audimrim te facere" Addai 3, 3 all inf. ; ^p ^_j? ,A-i !k?o? (»<^
oojX vop-v? Jl*.j "those of the monks, who wish to make for them-
selves stone chests for the dead" Ov. 214, 12; «.l! ,>?*?> =o^ <^ W
JLio ^Wi} "but we have not now come to stir up the mud of Barde-
sanes" Ov. 64, 12; ^^i' \>\ ivi Ht** &***• V oKj! ^ ^
v^.v,\ ^tol "for I see that you too are eager to hear profitable speech"
Philox. 120, 2, and many similar instances.

§ 380. Parentheses, like the following one, are seldom met with; t.™-
oo.U}l.i # JbSxi*ii ot^-i J~^< !*=^v? U <*"* **" " how m>m l
wise men, think you, have abrogated laws in their several countries?"
Spic 19 1 More frequently are parentheses found in quotations of

sayings:'., g. ,.^1 **> »-& ! t^ ^ K ^ " l am a& f '

says the servant, to mention what you have stolen" Joseph 218, 3 [— Ov.

307, 14] &c.

§ 381. The construction of the Nominative Absolute (§ 317) be- i»«oi*
longs at bottom to the Anacoluthon, ™d the same may be said of several
O&er constructions which we have met with above. But true Anacolutha ,—
i. e. those which are felt to be such,— are not very common. They belong,
moreover, rather to the department of rhetoric than that of grammar.

— 316 — §382.

§ 382. The range of the Ellipsis is very extensive. We have al-
ready in foregoing sections dealt with various instances of its employ-
ment, of. e. i/. §§ 374 E; 375 C. To the Ellipsis belongs the omission of
individual words and groups of words, which may he supplied from the
contents of corresponding clauses (§§ 332; 374 F); thus farther IL^ol;
k,!;-;^.) -» Ri-olo oKai M^xy •*>!? -°i "it is one thing for a
man to write with pathos, and another tiring (for hiiu to write) with
truth" Jos. St. 5, 7; i-ai.> dM**» l»-^j °°i ^J'^! t*^U*» <-^k
■%JL»j "and whenever they [the teachers] do put a question, (they do so)
that they may direct the mind of the questioner [the pupil], so that he
may ask properly" Spic. 1, 18; ipoai^. wLoa-% <»i «y &t JiV*"l uS±a.o

»>*-»6!( it^t^ *;**"»"? J^V^ h-a nvK-v .s!» >aofa |kaa-tw»o Ja^iaoaj

"and' sent others, who conveyed his kindness (». e. his gifts) to the
monasteries of the "West and the South . . . , so that even to the needy
saints who dwell in the wilderness of Jerusalem (he sent gifts)" Ov.
205, 22 &c. Bursts of Exclamation produce other ellipses, which do not
admit of being formed into complete sentences. Others, again, are pro-
duced by the peculiar style of Adjuration-formulae. In fact living speech
is very elliptical; but of course the proportion, in which the individual
man may avail himself of this form of expression, is not a matter to be
settled by grammar.

APPENDIX.

ON THE USE OF THE LETTERS OF THE ALPHABET
AS CIPHERS.

The letters, which are noted on p. 2, may take numerical values.
A lino drawn above them, or some other distinguishing mark, is wont
upon occasion to make them significant as ciphers. In compound nu-
merals the higher order takes the right hand place. The hundreds from
500 to 900, for which the alphabetical characters do not suffice, are
represented by the corresponding tens, ^j, k», •*-, ■», j, over which a

317 —

point is placed for distinction's sake. This point, however, is often wanting;
yet the numerical value is generally quite clear from the mere order of
the ciphers, or from the context. For the hundredsfrom 500—800, com-
binations withl = 400 frequently appear also, thus: *t - 500; >l = 600;
if = 70O; II 800. For the thousands the units may he placed, where
the order of the ciphers gives them to he recognised as indicating thou-
sands; a small oblique stroke is sometimes set below them us a distin-
guishing mark. _ r

Ex amples : ^ = 23; ~ji = 209; ,.^= 394; ^ (M^) or y*el

— 527; omJ l (o.ai3(, c^ms!) — 1862; ^Jw = 5550 &c.

Farther, the thousands are ve ry o ften written o ut in f ull, with
numeral letters accompanying, a. g. y»jo JaSv — 1944; ^jjjo ^a^. •=>

— 2152 &c. And, besides, there occur combinations of numerals mitten
out in full and numerals represented by letters, e. g. ycoo !J*u*»Lo JaS>

— 1967; ^.t^to OJ> — 630 Ac.

Bern. In certain MSS. a very ancient system of ciphers is found,
resting upon quite a different principle.

ADDITIONS AND OOKBECTIONS.

P. 2, I. 2 from foot, 3* a last col.; after— sh — , insert—©.

P. 16, 1. 15 from top; read — Exception.

P. 23, 1. 19; for— "there"— , read— "then".

P. 45, 1. 4 from foot of text; for ^.k.j{, read — *;V"'

P. 46, 1. 4 of § 66; for— f. >^a.— , read— f. o-a_.

P. 52, 1. 11 from top; read last word — &oJLvj-

P. 64, 1. 10 ; for Jioi), read — J&oiJ.

P. 64, 1. 11; for J^j-D, read— J^j.

P. 74, 1. 4; for — syllables — , read — letters.

P. 87. 1. 11; for— 6^, read— ov-1

P. 87, 1. 20, 2° d col. ; for— ^^uji read— ^.Ai-f.

P. 87, 1. 26, 2 nd col.; for— ^i-ju|, read— ,•.%*}-?■

P. 88, 4 th footnote; for — i*~i";{, read — ^oti^J.

P. 94, 1. 9 from foot; for — X?y*>?, read JU*£?.

P. 95, 1. 3 from foot of text; for— v>a.iu, read— jjaiadkj..

P. 97, margin; for — months — , read — month.

P. 98, 1. 2 fromfoot of text; after— "ill";— , insert— o^ "well", "much'

(adv.);—.
P. 103, margin; for — Preposition—, read — Prepositions.
P. 107, 1. 8; read first word as — *tp[.
P. 114, 1" line of footnote; for — -Jitp — , read — — JLi'rp.
P. 128, 1. 2; read last word as — J"~*J
P. 128, 1. 9; for — LaJ»— , read— Lia.
P. 128, ull, mid. col.; for — jdaj — , read — jo^-i.
P. 133, ult; for— JLij— , read— JUj.
P. 140, 1. 10; for — — «Jo|^u — , read — ^5i.Jo£u)i

319 —

P. 144, last column; read 3 Id word as — uat

P. 182, 1. 16; read last word as — oii.

P. 209, 1. 8; read 3 Id Syriae word as— p6>!?.

P. 212, 11. 10 & 9 from foot; read— Sentences.

P. 222, 1. 11 from top; after— § 283—, insert— A.

P. 229, 1. 15; for— -wo^i— , read— «o{J.

P. 232, 1. 6 from foot; for— ^v!" • read— ^-V 30 "!-

P. 240, 1. 2 from foot; from the words— "who are you Christians"—,

delete — you.
P. 244, 1. 5 from top; read first word as — ensamplc.
P. 255, 1. 15; for— 28 ah inf.—, read— 28a, inf.
P. 255, 1. 19; read — consigned to writing.
P. 257, 1. 16; for— ooo(, read— oow.
P. 271, 1. 9 from foot; for— XXX — , read— XXIX.

Note. — A vowel-mark, or a point or other sign, has fallen out in
the Syriac portion of the type, much oftener than could have heen wished.
It would appear that the occasional occurrence of such an accident, im-
mediately hefore the final impression, is exceedingly difficult to avoid in
this particular type, however careful the manipulation may be; and,
happening when it does, it is of course beyond the control of any proof-
reading. In the above list of "Additions and Corrections", only those
instances of such a fault have heen pointed out, which stand in Paradigms
■ or similarly important situations. The others are left to the discernment
of the reader to discover and correct, and to his indulgence to condone.

TABLE

OF THE SYRIAC WRITTEN-CHARACTER. DRAWN BY

J. EUTING.

hebr.

pfionik.

Sendschi-rli

800 v.Chr.

TeimnSQOvCtii.

pun.SiegdaGtman nabataisch
l-aMJilrUChp. 1-100 n.Ckr.

palm^ren.
1-270 n.Chr.

a'gypt. aram.

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aliJttin.-sjri.Htt.
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In.WHJht&UniiJ

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A. 0790
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INDEX OF PASSAGES.

(THE REFERENCES AKE TO THE PAGES 01? THIS EDITION)

A. SCRIPTURE.

(a,) OLD TESTAMENT.

Genesis

1, 2 238

S, 6 238

7 191

9 151

18 263

8, 1 238

10, 11 . . . 159

4, 2 238

9 247

8,21 235

9,11 207

23 256

25 156

12, 1 284

II 164

14, 18 238

16,17 239

16, 1 (Ceriani) . 243
18,27 248

20, 5 247

21, 5 238

17 182

23,15 185

24,11 292

44 248

27, 18 248

46 202

29, 9 216

31,15 238

27 204

31,41 185

84,22 208

36,31 209

87,88 236

41, 2,8 . . . . 154

2, 18, 19 . . 158

42,11,31 ... 159

Genesis

43,10 . . .167

44, 28 . . . .

48.14 . . . .

50.15 . . . .

Exodus

1, 5 ... .

5,11 . . . .

17 ... .

16, 5 . ...

17, 1 ... .
18,21 ....

21, 8 ... .
11 ... .

22, S, 6 . . .
26(Bftl-U.) .

24,12 , . . .
82, 1 ... .

Leviticus

14,30 ...

Numbers

11, 4 ... .
21, 5 ... .
25,15 (Ceriani)

Deuteronomy

1,35 ....

4,14 ... .

24 ... .

26 ... .

9, 3 ... .

21 ... .

18, 14 . . . .

24,15. . . .

254
229
222
117
222
229
244
256

Deuteronomy

2 Samuel

28,67 ....

. 204

33, 19 (Bark) .

. 120

13, 20 . . . .

2(1(1

16, 8,12 . .

. 233

Joshua

18, 83 ... .

6, 3 sqq. . .
26 ... .

. 148

1 Kings

10,22 ....

. 186

16, 6, 19 . .

. 193

Judges

2, 15 . . . .

. 284

3,22 ....

. 42

2 Kings

. 274

1,16 (HexA .

. 235

6,19 . . . .

9, 32 . . . .

18fi

11, 5, 9 . . .

. 139

143

20, 12 . . , .

161

2 Chronicles

ami

12 ... .

. 138

Nehemiah

33 ... .

. 290

. 175

. 214

Job

20,13 ....

1, l ... ,

KK!I

1 (Hex.) .

. 2S5

Ruth

7, 2 (Hex.) .

. 132

106

3,10 ....

21 ... .

240

10,18 ....

. 204

1 Samuel

11, 6 . . .

. 204

14,47 ....

. 284

13, 5 . . . 204, 236

14, 13 . . . .

21, 9 (Bavll.).

. 141

15, 4 ... .

H7J1

26, 7 ... .

189

22, 8 ... .

21

Wt

322

INDEX OF PASSAGES.

Job

24,10 190

26, 6 155

30, 3 106

31,24 248

32, 4 238

33, 6 248

9 247

40,19 248

42,11 238

Psalm

1, 3 199

3, 3 223

10, 14 222

19, 3 153

33,17 221

34,15 234

35, 3 222

37,22 223

39, ult 294

40,14 234

41, 6 204

9 221

48,12 (Si Hex.) . 148

50, 1 156

61, 5 ..... 221

60,28 164

78, 5 240

84, 7 156

Psatm

84,12 223

91,15 (Hex.) . . 165

104,4 156

119,20 106

136,2 156

Proverbs

1,16 175

3,15,18 . . .247

28 241

4,23 153

5,14 153

6,30 226

8, 2 242

12 248

30 . . ■ . . 238

9,12 247

17 158

10, 2 155

15,27 211

17,11 155

23,35 (Hex.). . 285

Ecclesiastes

1, 3 . . . 172,181

7 153

6, 6 167

6 (Ceriani) 171

Ecclesiastes

8,15 172

Canticles

3, 8 223

Isaiah

1,19 207

13, 3 222

12 (Hex.) . 196

14,16 221

16, 3 .... . 78

19, 2 153

14 221

20, 4 190

28,15 255

86, 6 (Hex.) . . 311
37, 34 (Hex.). . 143

40, 3 172

48,12 161

61, 2 138

19 175

52, 2 107

55, 1 155

60,21 230

Jeremiah

4,29 172

6, 8 199

Jeremiah

10,20 240

16,19 279

28,11 (Hex.) . . 293
38, 9 247

Lamentations

4, 8 106

Ezekiel

16,39 190

23,40 256

29,18 153

44,13 234

Daniel

3, 6, 11 sqq. . 222
24 266

4, 8, 9, 18 . . 156
5,11 156

12 158

6,20 275

9,21 236

Micah

1, 2 ..... 286

Nahum

2,10 106

(b) APOCRYPHA.

1 Maccabees

Sap. (Sol.)

Sirach

i Sirach

. 117

2,11 . .

. . 153 47,10 .

23,19 . .

2 Maccabees

42,11 . .

. .214

. 256

. . 187 |

. 152
. 155

(o) NEW TESTAMENT.

Matthew,

Matthew

Matthew

Matthew

4, 8 . .

7, 9 . .

. . . 232

11,22,24

. . .196

. . 160

. . . 155

27 . .

. . . 309

5 . .

. . .230

. . 218

18 . .

. 163,249

8, 2 . .

. . .235

34 . .

. . .159

9 . . .

274, 292

25 . .

... 205

... 305

44 . .

... 284

11 . . .

. . 274

29 . .

45 . .

. 158,160

16 . 188
18 . .

274, 297

34. .

... 180

17 . .

. 168, 248

20 . .

48 . .

. . .160

10,16 . .

... 160

24,31,

33 . .168

8, 9 . .

. . 2S4

8,11 . .

... 167

20 . .

. . .247

46 .

. 162,250

17
4, 1 . ,

. . 287

16 . .
34. .

. 160

11, 8 . .

. 156,216

27 .

... 248

7, 2, 7 .

... 201

4 . .

... 280

INDEX OF PASSAGES.

323

Matthew

15,34 170

18,10 154

16,20 ... 248
23 167

17, 8 230

9 215

17 268

19 198

18, 6 231

13 195

15 198

15-17 . . .204
30 249

19, 3 153

10 197

14 214

28 285

29 . . . -. . 187

20,15 158

21,21 310

23, 24,27 . . 154

27 215

31,32 . . .257

41 168

46 224

22,16,21 ... 166

25 229

29 2

36,40 . . . 154
43 155

23, 4 . ... 228

14 248

17 228

23 204

27 161

34 153

37 164

24, 2 . . . 153,230
5 . . . . 248
7 153

10 187

22 311

25 274

38 282

41 240

43 312

48,49 ... 300
50 282

25,32 187

40 . . . 175,179

26, 4 197

9 193

11 244

24 312

35 226

38 200

42 167

47 216

56 . , ... 291

Matthew

28,63 248

74 120

27, 4 182

5 229

12 173

27 228

45,46 . . .154

64 214

28,12 158

Mark

1, 6 220

11 287

18 230

27 187

32 189

2, 2 275

3 186

9 sq. ... 230

13 172

14 216

28 172

3,20 210

4,17 168

5, 9 159

15, 16,18 . . 177
6,10 . . . . 285

11 196

17 203

37 214

49 146

56 .... . 310

10,18 216

14 214

15 198

30 187

11,25 205

13,20 313

27 186

33, 35 . . . 205

14,21 312

16, 3 204

Luke

1,15 160

22 249

33 155

34 219

42 160

73 . . . . .279

2, I 252

5 . . . . 249
6 250

15,49 ... 188

3, 5 172

8 225

22 287

4, 5 276

36 188

Luke

6,12 235

7,19,20. ... 216

8, 8 187

47, 55. . . . 256

50 235

0, 4 285

41 268

55 183

10,12,14 ... 196
24 . . . 247, 248

30 197

35 179

37 205

42 151

11,17 ..... 176

42 205

53 215

12,13 214

22 167

49 313

13, 2 . . . . . 160
7 .... 274
9 204

14 . . . 205, 215

28 240

34 . 164,286,287

14, 2 220

15, 7 196

13 170

17 ..... 154

22 232

24, 32. . . . 160
29 154

18, 6, 7 . . . . 170

12 178

13 278

16,17 196

17, 1 201

2 . . . 196,231

18, 1 . . . 206, 262

13 800

19 309

22 .... . 158

25 196

39 299

19,18 167

26 241

20, 2 154

29 155

SO 166

31 167

21,14 206

22,29,70 . . .248

23, 5 230

8, 9 173

24,29 . . . 200,218

John

(Bernstein S. VIJ120

John

(Bernst-Gen.'Ref.)l3S

1,1 242

4 255

4, 10 . . . 239

11 178

15 177

19 248

27 280

28 239

30 177

31 192

43 228

2, 5 (Hark.) . 312

12 170

25 231

3, 4 167

17 231

21 299

35 171

4, 7, 10 . . . 209
15 206

4,29,32,35. . 248

34 178

37 156

46,49 ... 168
6, 1 (Hark.) . 196

7 156

9 180

13 188

16 304

19 214

26 244

27 239

34 264

6, 9 197

7,19 266

8, 39 . ... 248

41 239

44 243

. 48, 52 . . . 197

53 248

9,13 .... 160

30 226

34 177

10,85 239

88 (Bernstein) 19

11,25 310

26 212

33 291

38 ... . 1'98

12, 8 244

28 212

13,14 239

15,19 239

16, 4 239

8,16 ... 19
20 (Bern8tein)117

18,18 200

19,12 238

324

INDEX OP PASSAGES.

Acts of the Apostles

1 Corinthians

200

16,36 . . .

182

15,51 ....

12 . .

!A'I

193

xe,27 . . . aos

'208

VHti

156
253

30 . . . .

225
158

2, 9 ... .

32

154

Acts of the Apostles

192

Galatians

2, 4 . .

224

234

306

39 . .
45,47

21G

196

4,32 . .

153

Ephesians

9, 9 . . . .

HOfi

21,34

306

9,33 . .

. 153

Philippians

177

1 Corinthians

12,15, 19

177

IThessalonians

4,13 . . . .

i y sj

2 Timothy

3, 2 (Hark.) . 165

Hebrews

3,17 182

7,18 155

12,29 222

13, 7 . . . 205, 223

James
3,15 83

5.17 (Hark.) . 200

Revelation
1,10 (G-wynn). 155

2, 5, 15 . . . 122
4, 2 (GwymiX 155

9.18 ( ., ). 154

15, 6 220

17, 3 (G-wymi). 155
21,10 ( „ ). 155

AUTHORS and WORKS mentioned in the pbefaob, as -well as

THE FOLLOWING:

rHIIiOX. = Dincourneu of PhiloxenuB, Bishop of Mabbog" (Budge) ;

JOHN VAN TELL A (Kleyn);

TCUSEB. CH. HIST. --Eueabiua' Clniroh History;

BEDJAN, MAUT. = Ada Martynim et Sanctorum (Beiljan).

Mdal

2,12 153

3, 3 ah inf. . .315
Ult. .... 247

31, 8 253

44,16 281

ult 205

48, 8 218

Anc. Doc.

20,14 218

42, 9 . . . 223,224

18 195

22 222

48,25 208

65, 2 254

73,13 152

67, 3 230

9 263

16 . . . 801,313

22 312

23 301

89,14. ■ ■ • ■ 234

Anc. Doc.

90,15 301

18 176

22 210

23 . . . 214,217

25 220

paen 215

ult 287

91, 3 236

96, 1 301

08,12 308

101, 3 158

ult . . . . 297

102, 3 206

103,13 208

20,25 ... 218
104,25. . . .268
106,11. . . 298,301

Aphr.

(Wriglit'sPref.12, 21)

Aphr.

6, 1 . . . 202, 228
4 199

12 . . . 175, 199

14 260

16 166

ult 175

7, 1 260

2 . 203,251,262

7 296

8 274

9 174

11 203

ult 202

8, 2, 18 . . . 304

14 154

paen. . ■ . 199
ult 249

9,10 . . 172,260

12 260

14 808

16 151

10,18 809

10,20 285

Aphr.

12, 3 273

13,12 247

14,10 251

15, 1 20S

2 218

4 301

13 228

17 282

16,12, 13 . . . 257
19 . . . 154, 157

18, 4 251

17 230

19, 6 304

16 187

20, 4 235

8 173

21, 1 235

22, ft 232

12 171

18 225

24, 3 257

i, 9 . . . .154

25, 1,4,6,9,22 . 259

INDEX OE PASSAGES.

325

Aphr.

26, 5 209

36, 4 275

5 180

6 206

20 . . . 29], 309

87,10 177

11 &c. . . . 246

13 290

28, 8 219

9 . . . 161,278

30, 1 .... 24'i
12 172

31, 6 .... 201
15 187

33, 2 241

34, 1 180

36, 2 231

5 178

20 . . . 185,212

37,12 216

89,13 213

40, 8 201

ult 288

41,10 230

17 164

42,17 169

44, 2 . . 222, 261
5 237

45, 5 152

8 . . . 158, 246

10 246

17 251

19 294

22 307

46,- 1 . . . 278,301
15 284

47, 1, 2 ... . 223

48, 2 ..... 230

10 204

18 264

40, 3, 6, ult. . . 233

12 237

50,11 167

61, 7 246

62,15 171

63,13 162

54, 5 312

56, 8 161

18 205

66,21 185

57, 1 185

11 309

58, 14 306

69, 7 178

60, 5 304

<ilt 167

61,11 238

62, 7 229

68,10 171

Aphr.

Aphr.

. . 276

116, 11 . .

. . 184

161, 12 . .

117, 9 . .

- . 208

165, e . .

14 . .

. . 309

13 . .

. . 276

119, 5 . .

. . 309

14 . .

. . 242

119, 10 . .

. . 178

16 . .

. . 222

22 . .

59, 285

166, 1 . .

221, 1 . .

. . 177

168, 7 . .

. . 174

14 . .

. . 284

17 . .

. . 164

. . 201

122,18 . .

. . 254

169,12 . ,

69,12 . .

. . 283
. . 235

123, 2 . .

18 . .

. . 171
. .229

170, 1 . .
12 . .

. . 231

124, 2 . .

. . 228

13 . .

17 . .

. . 231

172, 7 . .

. . 17J

. . 234

125, 10 . .

. . 161

ult. . .

. . 200

. . 300

126,20 . .

. . 230

176,19 . .

208, 303

128, 3 . .

242,312

177, ult. . .

. . 212

129, 4,9 .

. . 299

179, 1 . .

74,12,15,1

7 . 191

6 . .

. . 282

180, 2 . .

. . 291

13 . .

265, 303

. . 288

130, 1 . .

. . 264

15 . .

. . 184

3 . .

, . 235

181, 5 . .

. 248

18,19.

. . 170

182, 4,13 .

. . 272

132,15 . ,

. . 184

183,16 . .

. . 278

133,17 . .

. . 185

134, 6 . .

. . 267

184, 3 . .

. . 286

12 . .

. . 231

5 .

11-2, 292

84,12 . .

. . 202

135, 2 . .

. . 241

185,20 . .

3 . .

.53, 242

186, 4 . .

. . 153

136, 3 . .

, . 251

187,10 . .

. . 214

. . 309

4,8 .

. . 224

188,17 . .

86,13 . .

. . 208

19, 22

. . 184

190, 4 . .

. . 278

137,21 . .

159,246

192,11 . .

88,13 . .

. . 163

138, 2 . .

. . 183

193, 6 . .

. . 228

142, 9 .

. . 196

194,14 . .

. . 239

10 . .

. . 251

198,10 . .

.. . 306

144, 7 . .

. . 159

199, 1 . .

. . 274

15,17

. . 160

10 . .

234,302

. 243

22 . .

. . 204

12 . .

. . 233

145,10 . .

. . 314

13 . .

. . 218

11 . .

. . 280

13 . .

. 230

12 . .

. . 211

15 . .

. . 306

15 . .

157,253

paen. ,

. . 298

147,13 . .

. . 221

201, 5, 6 .

. . 224

149,18 . .

. . 221

202, 1 . .

. . 208

150, 6 . .

. . 306

204, 4 . .

. . 208

15 . .

. . 245

20 . .

231

152,10 . .

257

206,21 . .

107,18 . .

. . 261

153,15 , .

. . 214

207,22 . .

. . 228

164, 1 . .

. . 212

209, 4 . .

. . 199

5 . .

. . 170

210, 1 . .

. . 221

8 . .

. . 201

4 . .

. . 162

166, 8 . .

. . 184

10 . .

. . 15

167,12 . .

. . 203

13,17 .

. . 175

158,11 . .

. . 24-1

211, 4 , .

. . 224

20 . .

. . 202

8 . .

. . 229

160,18 . .

. . 232

218, 7 . .

. , 218

161, 7 . .

209, 282

15 .

. . 171

8 . .

. . 199

214, 1 . .

15 . .

. . 188

9 . .

. . 206

14 . .

326

INDEX OF PASSAGES.

Aphr.

Aphr.

Aphr.

Aphr.

218,12,22

. . 309

272,10 . .

. . 258

314, 6 . .

. 272

392,20 . . .

221,12 . .

. . 195

273, 2 . .

. . 213

315 , 9 . .

. 174

394, 6 .

222, 1 . .

. . 284

9 . .

. . 216

318, 9 . .

. 182

12 .

3 . .

262, 283

274, 6 . .

. . 240

11 . . 1

53, 268

396, 2 .

5 . .

. . 209

276,19 . .

. . 292

319, 5, 6 .

. 235

896, 3 .

8 . .

. . 155

281, 5 . .

. .183

10 . .

. 178

899, 6 .

223,11 . .

. . 170

14 , .

. . 253

13,15.

. 186

ult. .

19,25

. . 176

282,13 . .

. . 198

concl.

. 207

400, 2 .

227, 9 . .

. . 239

284, 2 . .

. . 192

321, id*. . .

. 279

402,13 .

229, 13 . .

. . 161

4 . .

. . 254

823, 4 . .

. 163

18 .

230, 1 . .

. . 205

285, 9 . .

. . 221

328,14 . .

. 176

403, 10 .

5 . .

. . 201

tilt. . .

. . 162

16 . .

. 256

14 sqq.

6 . .

. 173

286, 5 . .

. . 114

329, 8 . .

. 256

404,21 .

231,12 . .

. . 252

8 . .

. . 164

5 . .

. 196

406, 2 .

232,15 .

. . 162

19 sgg.

. . 249

330,16 . . .

. 273

407,14 .

233, 8 .

. . 314

287, 2 . .

. . 222

331, 2 . .

. 170

408, 3,4

234, 2 .

. .210

16 . .

. . 224

4,5 .

. 248

412,17 .

18 .

. . 295

288,12 . .

. . 287

9 . .

. 247

414, 5 .

19 .

. . 294

289, 8 . .

. . 222

14 . .

. 246

416, 8 .

235, 8 .

296, 302

17 . .

. . 173

15 . .

. 248

419,13 .

18 .

. . 185

292, 2 . .

, . 173

336,18 .

. 310

420,18 .

idt, .

. . 209

293, 2 . .

. . 179

338, 3 . .

. 273

422,20 .

236,19 .

. . 206

5 . •

. . 245

338, 2 . .

. 197

423,19 .

paen.

. . 213

16 . .

. . 159

339, 1 . .

. 308

424,22 .

lilt, ,

. . 222

17 . .

. . 224

340,19 . .

. 213

426, 1 .

237, 4 .

. . 283

296, 8 . .

. . 275

341, 6 . .

. 247

18 .

241,18 .

. . 295

13 . .

. . 157

342, 4 . .

. 201

427,18 .

242, 4 .

. . 252

297, 1 . .

. . 155

17 . .

. 268

428, 4 .

14 .

. . 231

7 . .

. . 246

343, 6 . .

. 282

6 .

16, 17,

18 . 230

8 . .

. . 153

10 . .

. 200

429, 1 .

243, 2 .

. . 282

293, 4 522.

. . 204

17 . .

. 173

430,12 .

244, 7 .

. . 170

19 . .

. . 170

18 . .

. 279

ult. .

249,16 .

. . 228

299, 2 . .

. . 179

345, I , .

. 208

431, 2 .

260,19 .

. . 151

300,20 . .

. . 236

346,12 . .

. 279

433,11 .

261,19 .

. . 195

301,17 . .

. . 308

19 . .

. 182

434,17 .

252, 2 .

. . 155

ult. . .

. .162

847, 4 . .

. 195

19 .

264, 15 .

. . 163

302, 1 . .

. . 284

11 . .

. 182

438,13 .

259,14 .

. . 245

20,21.

. . 157

860,11^, .

. 182

14,18

15 .

. . 158

803, 8, 9 .

. . 157

362,10 . .

. 312

439, 3 .

267,22 .

. . 245

803, uffc . .

. . 253

16 - .

. 177

8 .

260, 4 .

. . 221

304, 9 . .

. . 203

354, 6 . .

. 161

441, 7 .

7, 20

. . . 224

14 . .

. . 201

8 . .

. 174

7,8

8 .

. . 223

17 . .

. . 208

366, 2 . .

. 241

12 .

10 .

. . 156

305, 2 . .

. . 126

3 .' .

. 280

442, 6 .

16 .

. . . 222

5 . .

. . 243

857, 8 . „

. 232

16

281, 6 .

. . . 181

307, 5 . .

. . 161

359, 1 . .

. 293

446, 1 .

9 .

. . 224

11 - .

. . 311

3,7 .

. 225

3

19 .

. . . 236

19 . .

. . 265

367, 5, 11 .

. 225

6 .

262, 5 .

. . .237

308, 3 . .

. . 246

370,19 . .

. 236

15 .

264, 6 .

. . . 205

18 . .

. . 168

374,18 . .

. 294

paen.

266, 6 .

. . .272

809,12 . .

. . 298

875, ult. .

. 294

447, 2 .

267, 2 .

. . . 153

310, 8 . .

. . 278

881, 2 . .

. 179

ult. .

21 .

. . . 212

10 . .

. . 295

882, 7 .

. 193

448, 6 .

268, 1 .

. . . 156

312, 6 . .

. .215

18 . .

. 300

15 .

5 .

. . . 249

20 . .

. .309

383, 2 . .

..160

16 .

269,12 ,

. . . 159

21 . .

. . 218

884, 3 . .

. 215

449,11 .

270, 5 .

. 208, 236

313, 4,5 ,

. . 163

10 . .

. 300

15 .

8,10

11 . 247

12 . .

164,208

389,11 . ,

. 292

450,14 .

271, ult.

. . . 221

314, 4 . ,

. . 210

891, 3 . ,

64, 206

16 .

INDEX OF PASSAGES.

327

Aphr.

161, 1

453, 9

13. 223,
453,11

460, 5 .
ult. .

461, 3 .

ult. .

463, 5 .

ult. .

464,10 .

IS .
465, 9 .

11 .

13
466,17 .
467, 1 .
468, 14

16

IS
469, 1
470,15
471,12

13
472, 20
473,11
474,21
476, 2

476, 2

477, 9

478, 4

. 292
. 194
. 224
. 273
. 224
243, 292
. 235
. 154
. 157'
. 274
. 224
. 176
, 274
. 293
. 243
. 247
■163
. 220
. 307
. 313
. 246
. 274, 275
. 231
41,307
. 156
. 178
113
, 229
. 151
. 186
. 157
. 156
. 161
. 221
. 162
. 310
. 246
. 283
. 171
. 218
, 283
. 243
. 180
. 185
. 185
. 217
. 181
. 161

. 289
. 273

267
, 162

. 256

. 192

Aphr.

479, 16

480, 8

481, is
12

482, 9

483, 4

486, 5
487,11

488, 9
11

ult.

489, 9
491, 1

13
496, 2

497, 2,3

ult.

600, 7

603, 4

605, 5

7

15

506, 3

14

ult...
607, ult .

. . 269

. . 154

. . 257

. . 282

. . 153

. . 212

230, 284

. . 311

. . 222

. . 288

. . 251

. . 291

. 247

194,246

246

178

259, 260

. 174

. 214

. 196

. 287

. 186

263

. 246

. 243

207

. 207

. 233

. 178

. 268

. 226

. 194

. 295

. 207

. 183

. 183

. 235

286

. 285

. 202

. 168
. 201
. 166
. 178
. 292
. 161
. 279

Apost. Apoor.

182 sq. . ■ .

187, ult. . .

198, 1 . . .

274, 9 . . .

11 . . .

16 . . .

paen. ■ ■
279, 7 . . .
306, 7 . . .
815, 3 . . .
316, 4 ab inf.

Bedjan, Mart.

II, 229, 10 .
428, 7 .
662, 6 .
572, 10 .
579, 8 .
605,17 .

. 183
. 247
. 277
. 232
. 242
. 227
. 119
. 146
. 140

. 167
. 167
. 158
. 238
. 167
. 197
. 198
238

612,14

IT, 179, 18 -

V, 619, 3(Jao.Sar.}

. . 174

Ephr.
I, 14 C .

23 D .

36 B .

55 E .

66 .

66 D
101 E
110 E
152 B
161 E

Apost. Apocr.

176,18 . . .

. 189
. 218
. 284
. 192
. 292
. 293
. 198
. 287
192
. 173
. 187
. 198
. 168
. 174
. 176
. 174
. 174
. 170
. 170
. 170
. 173

. 191,

294 J?
398 E
404 E
428 E
496 E
498 E
520 ult.
521, 1
544 E
549 E
II, SB

26 A

27 D
108 A
117 J?
124 B
127 A . . . 189
145 A (Jao. Ed.!)

. . . 256
171 E . . . 288
175 . . . 289
179 A . . . 168
212J3 . . . 267

. 165

. 284
. 165

Ephr.

II, 222 E ,
227 .
267 B .
269F .
271 A .
316 C .
319 D .
337 E .
339
347 D
384 D .
401 B .
411 E
415 E
424 D
433 F
435 B
451 B
453 E
456 D
485B
488 B

505 D

506 C
524 C
554

554 E

555 A
555 B

. 273
. 187
. 191
. 293
. 293
. 151
. 219
. 270
. 298
. 118
. 165
. 236
. 191
. 171
. 157
. 163
. 276
. 177
. 183
182
. 151
. 162
. 182
. 134
. 295
. 240
. 231
. 168

. .231

III, XXXIII, mid.201
ult. . . .225
XXX1X.3 . 193
XLlII,mid. . 212
„ ad iV.169
„ inf. . 252
XLV (twice) 175
LI1I ad in/Mi

20
30

IOC .

42 B .

1110 .

136B .

161 B .

225 B .

245 D .

250 B .

251 A .
258 .
254 D .
283 D .
802 D .
308 E .
305 E .
310 E .
342 E .
344 E .
859 A .
882 A .

176
157
176
195
. 153
. 194
277
. 156
. 256
. 162
. 153
. 189
. 210
. 157
. 178
. 154
. 278
. 182
. 243
. 223
. 182
. 176

328

INDEX OF PASSAGES.

Ephr.

Ephr. Nis.

Isaac

Isaac Ninivita

Ill, 383 E . .

191

p. 4, v. 7 ... 157

II, 4,v. 22 . 152

(Awsemaiii)

418 Jj] . .

240

4,v.46 . . . 171

12, v. 135 . 191

1,449 . . .

. 181

419 A . .

240

8, v.9l ... 268

42, v. 104 . 241

423 B . . .

189

v. 109. . 292

80, v. 1G9 . 157

Jac. Ed.

426 a - .

294

18, v. 72 ... 191

92, v. 67 . . 275

(Lagarde's 'llel.Jw.

522 E . . .

271

49(31), V. 122 . 162

136, v. 600 . 275

Syr\)

523 A . .

271

192, v. 633 . 196

144, 4 . . .

. '245

5301? . .

171

55, v. 144. . . 241

216, v. 251 .288

14 . . .

. 219

532 . .

171

57, v. 67' ... 168

v. 280 . 288

537 B . ,

107

V. 73 . . . 229

218, v. 318 . 173

Jac. Ed.

554 E . 177

275

60, v. 261. . . 178

326, v. 1513 . 193

(Wright)

569 A . .

275

62, v. 83 ... 227

344, v. 1753 . 152

Bp. 1 3, p, 2, 2

. 285

576 A . .

310

v. 88 . . . 240

348, v. 1858 . 200

11, 7 . 2+4

576 D . .

310

64, v. 203. . . 210

598 D . .

182

68, v. 58 . , . 285

Isaac (in Zingerle's

Jac. Ed.

593 F . .

177

71.V.65 . .15,191

(Jhrest.)

(Wright'

Cat.)

651 A . 171

178

77, v. 98 ... 153

407, v. 33 . . . 154

28 a, inf. . .

. 255

658 B . .

195

87, v. 113. . . 292

658 1 1 . .

232

96, v. 54 ... 158

Jac. Sar.

663 A . ,

261

97,v.llO. . . 171

Alexander, (Zt. f. Assyriologie

668 A . .

196

100, v. 189. . . 157

VI) 368, v.

. 204

674 F . .

280

106, v. 39 . . . 27+

Constantinvv. 28,63

2

158

675 A . .
678 A . .

.280
194

Ephr. (in Wright's

Cat.)
689 a, 3 ... 167
689 a, 14 ... 275
Ephr. (in Zingerle's

v. 402 ,
v. 666 .

138

687 . .
Ephr. (Lamy)

242

276

166

231

176

210

210

. 210

. 278

. 157

. 292

. 298

. 157

, 226

Thamar, v. 31 .

vv.247, 25

v. 279 .

v.407 .

287
280

I, 23, str. 26

156

57, str. 7 .

91,9 . .
126,10. .
175,19. .

Chrest.)

194

357, 8 . . ■ . .2+5
278, 6 8%, , . .167
379, 5 .... 174

(in Zingevle'H Chrest.)

374 . . .

375 ...
411, v. 46

181
. 197

205,16 . ,
217,5 . .

2+5,16 . .
253, ult. .
259, 10 . .
261,21 . .
303,11. .

327, v. 117 . . 18*

Euseb. Ch. Hist.

14,14,18 . . 273
128, paen. ... 273
146, 1 .... 155
180, 9 .... 265
211, 1 .... 122

(in Bedjau, Mart.) V
(in Mart.) II

(in Moes.) 1

(in ZDMG) XXIX

XXXI,

619, 3 . .
233, 1 . .
237, inf. .
242, mid. .
31, v. 296.
109 v. 30
377, ult

. 174
. 227
. 231
. 148
. 194
. 166
. 180

369,17. .
391, «J*. .
467,11 . .

. 157
. 157

. 181

260, 4 ab inf. . 254

274, 8 .... 180

275, 6 ab inf. . 273

John Eph.

81, 18 ... . 194
117,18 .... 177

John van Telia

23,16 187

28, 5 . . . - 158

535, 15 . ■
607, eh". 19

. 171
. 275

316, 6 .... 265
332,12 .... 289

192, 20 sq. . . . 168

193, 7 . . . 293

46,12 . . .

254
235

617, str. 1

. 275

395, 5 .... 93

202,19 . . . . 282

50,18. . .

254

645, str. 15

. 226

Isaac

222,15 . . . . 256

51, 3 . . .

214

684, str. 18
II, 179, 4 . .

247,3 . .

411,11,14

599,8 . .

739, 14, 20

741,7 . .

765, 2 . .
111,681, str. 25

689, str. 13

, 275
. 222
. 222
. 157
. 219
. 168
. 168
. 168
. 305
. 292

I, 22, v. 446 . . 178
v.454 . . 178

320,21 .... 190
338, 6 .... 276

61, 2 . . .

. 187

v.462 . . 174
132, v. 1117 . 283

349,13 . . , . 204
359, 3 . . .196

Joseph

184, v. 129 . 298

395,12 . . . . 168

4,12 . .

. 286

220, y. 313 . 276

398,16 .... 177

9, 6 . .

. 226

242, v. 897 . 139

399,15 . . 247,270

11, paen, .

. 280

244, v.407 . 160

V.414 . 196
248, v. 511 . 288

406, 7 .... 293

John van Telia

15, Note 10
19, 3 . .
26, 9 . .

. 210
. 210
. 176

Ephr. Nis.

266, v. 362 . 273

14 . .

. 159

p. a (i), v. 149

. 162

288, V. 267 . 167

11, 9 221

29, 7 . .

. 214

INDEX OF PASSAGES.

329

Joseph

31, 11

Note 6
42, paen. .
4,3, 4 . .

100, 5 . .

106,11 . .

117,11 . .

124, 8 sg. .

192.11 . .
12 . .

193, 9 . .
194,13 .

195, 9 . .

196, 6 .
vlt. . .

201, ult. .

203.12 .

204, 4 .

205, 1 .

206, 4 ab
213,12 .
214, 5 .
218, 3 .

22B, 2

227, 4 .
229, 7 .
14 .
239, 9 .
242, 9 .
256, paen.

258, 4 .

259, 2 .
280,13 .
293, 2 .
297, 9 .
304, 8 .
822,10 .

Jos. St.

2, 6 .
14 .

14 .

21 .

22 .
4,14 .

17 .
6, 2 .

. . 196

. . 131

. . 210

. . 260

. . 260

. . 275

■237

. . 236

. . 275

. . 189

. . 172

. . S06

. . 227

. . 297

. . 162

. . 204

. . 237

. . 194

. . 227

. . 274

inf. . 200

. . 276

172,189

. . 315

. . 227

. . 297

. . 197

. . .271

. . 276

. . .217

. . . 273

. . . 313

. . . 172

. . .199

. .298

. . .214

236,290

. . . 237

. . . 255

. 184,221

. . . 256

. . . 184

. . . 295

. . . 195

. . .295

. . . 298
. . 179

. . . 167

. . . 179

. . . 234

. . . 180
), 245, 313

. 150,316
... 213
. . .247
... 293
. 184, 295
... 281
... 264
... 295
. . . 213
... 262
, . .305
. . .201
. . .304
. 281,296

, 260

Jos. St.

33, 4 . .

18 . .

84,18 . 1!

85, 9 . .

:. 201,296
. . 217

39,10 .
41, 7 .

16 .

. 217
. 289

18,13,18
14, 1 . .

. 213
. 170
. 304
. 303
. 179
. 296
. 151
. 264
. 308
. 180
. 309
. 281
. 154

16,18 .
17, 3.

. 297
. 169

15 213

45, 5 173

47,20 253

49,20 295

50. 6 . ... 197

11 283

19 308

62, 1 255

. 257
. 230

64, 3 . .

55, 14 . .
56,14, 17

69, 9 .
60, 6 .

10 .
18,14.

. 228
. 220
. 231
. 295

19^21 306

21,20 170

28,14 205

16Note2 . . 201

17 171

24,11 225

26,11 314

26, 7 16»

8 187

9, 4.

. 258
, 214
. 258
. 25(5

10 .

20 .

76, 5 .

78.10 .
80, 1 .

2 .
16 .
20 .

81.11 .
84, 6 .
85,10 .

16 .
86,21 .
87,16 .

Jos. St.

90, 6 263

10 169

15 276

91,15 170

92. 4 244

. 201
. 152
. 217
. 296
. 252
. 231
. 220
. 213
. 293
. 231

. 264
. 158
. 178
. 209
. 173
. 194
. 212
. 289

. 197
. 281

5,24 . .
8,27 577-.

18,
21,

23,22 .
24, 9
26,13
27,27
30, 3
34, 4

37, 5

38, 2, i
89, 9
41,10
42,12

50,27 .
64,23 .

23 .

58.18 .
64, 8 .
89,12 .
70,12 .
72,21 .
73,11, 13

76.24 .

79.19 .

81.25 .

. 281
. 800

. . 234

161,174

. .274

, . . 264 ]

87,17
88,19

. 226

. 307

. 310

. 226

. 311

. 172

. 171

. 284

. 182

. 243

. 277

, 243

. 284

. 313

. 163

. 267

, 279

. 177

. 154

. 178

. 252

. 173

. 164

. 182

. 182

. 209

. 306

. 162

. 277

. 313

. 293

. 165

. 262

. 182

. 163

. . 163

. . 272

. . 172

. . 258

. . 229

. . 287

. . 154

. . 305

. . 813

. . 185

. . 273

. . 312

. . 277

. . 158

. . 293

330

INDEX OF PASSAGES.

lul.

Land

Mart.

Mart.

88, 21 . .

. . 204

I, 40,5 . .

. 191

1, 16,*V- .

299

1,160,20 . .

. 224

89, 3 . .

. . 157

11, 26, 11 . .

. 146

18,5 . .

233

lSQ,inf--

. 195

00,25 . .
92, 7 . .

. .138

48, i 3 . .

. 186

19, in/-- 167

272

167, mid.

. 217

. . 172

55, 18 . .

. 252

23, mid. .

193

180, inf. .

. 221

95, i) . .

. . 277

93, ult. . .

. 209

24,11 . .

300

181, inf..

. 179

86,17 . .

. . 275

97, ult.. .

. 209

25, mid. .

214

182,3 . .

. 243

98, 1 1 .

. . 225

141, paen. .

. 183

2Q l inf.. .

217

6 . 1

33, 267

13 . .

. . 170

159,24 . .

. 305

27,5 . .

219

8 .

. 180

09,21 . .
100, ult. , .

. . 228

167,6 . .

. 272

32, mid. .

229

inf. .

. 219

. . 189

175,9 . .

. 281

35, mid. .

162

183, mid.

. 261

104,26 . .
106, 1 . .

. . 313
. . 277

201,7 . .
240,10 . .

. 209
. 289

46,5 . .

47,1 . ,

252
165

185,12 .
186, mid.

. 153

. 267

6 . -

. . 287

251,14 ■ .

. 209

9 . .

252

194,10 .

. 222

27 .

. . 154

277,3 . .

. 153

56,13 . .

229

197,15 .

. 298

109, ult. .

110 , 1 .

. . 178
. . 306

14 .
326,2 . ■

. 288
. 168

57, mid. .
68,10,21.

215

286

mid.
218,1 .

. 238
. 239

112, 13 .

. . 165

345, 9 . .

. 196

70, mid. .

192

227, paen.

. 175

115 , ult. .

. . 187

349,2 . .

. 188

73,6 . .

254

234,3 .

. 180

119 , 6 ■

. . 157

356,7 . .

. 187

75, inf.. .

270

235, inf. .

. 168

123, 2 .

305

388,6 . .

. 253

79,10 . .

165

243, mid.

. 198

5 . .

, . 225

ILI, 36,18,19 ■

. 254

12 . .

275

244,8 .

. 202

125,18 .
27 .

. . 229
. . '223

39,16 . .
53,26 . .

. 165
. 240

91,3 . .
94,8 . .

217
272

245.8 .

246.9 .

. 264
. 237

126, 5 .
129, 7 .

. . 223
. . 189

60,13 . .
73,1 . .

. 284
. 194

14 . .

98, mid. .

217
296

mid.
251, inf..

. 215

. 306

131, 3 .
132,10 .

. . 229
. , 258

91,17 . .

106,25 . .

. 241
. 192

99,1 . .
100,24 . .

217
156

253, ad inf
255, mid,

. 237
. 250

. 12 .

. . 313

136,14 . .

. 165

106, in/".. .

217

II, 233, 1 (Jac. bar. J

138, 1 .
148, 2 .

. . 229
. . 298

140,17 . .
141,12 . .

. 241
. 241

112,2 . .
113, inf.. .

182
266

.... 227
287,A^.(Jac Sar.)

148, 6 .
162, 21 .

27 .

. . 278
. . 282
. . 278

142,1 . .

177,27 . .

■ 206,24 . .

. 241
. 275

. 293

120,9 . .

122,6 . .

8 . .

. 249
208
232

.... 231

242,mid.(Jac.Sar.)
. . . .148

155,15 .

. . 163

208,10 . .

. 293

10 . .

216

268 . .

. Z61

158,26 .

. . 286

20, 23 .

. 155

16 . .

209

162, 10 .

. . 165

210,10 . .

. 192

23 . .

274

Moes.

169, 1 9 .

. . 308

19,21 .

. 311

123. 166,21

,228

I, 81, v. 296 (Jac.

170, 4 .

. . 195

211,6 . .

. 3U

124,2 . .

169

Sar.)

. 194

171 , 2 .

. . 293

213,14 .

. 158

9 . .

. 203

102,12 .

. 281

177,15 .
181, 13 .

. . 240
. . 193

215,13 . .
235,15 .

. 162
. 180

mid. .
inf. .

218
228

103,28 .
II, 56, V. 124

. 231

. 249

194, ult.

. . 288

244,18 .

. 237

125, mid. .

228

57, V. 176

. 249

199, 22 .

. . 293

246,14 .

. 275

ult.

. 212

63, inf. .

. 261

310, 7 .

. . . 312

257,3 .

. 273

126,2 . .

. 283

64,1 . .

. 208

217,26 .

. . . 204

258,17 .

. 240

10 . .

. 225

65,23 .

. 264

219, 18 .

. , .293

281,13 .

. 241

mid. 186, 228, 236

88,12

, 264

220,23 .

. . . 185

285, 7

. 241

127, supr. .

. 220

25 .

. 151

221, 6 .

. . .281

327,24 .

. 245

11 . .

. 213

69,26 .

. 181

222, 5 .

... 185

331,8 .

. 170

129, ult- .

. 275

70,10 .

. 182

223, 4, 6

. . . 185

335,17,21

. 170

134, Ult, ■

. 180

11 .

. 279

24 .

... 181

350,7 .

. 274

135,9 . •

. 187

71,80 .

. . 252

229, 4 .

. . . 185

IV, 87,0 .

. 220

137, inf. .

. 198

72,5 .

. 192

230,25 .

, 279, 282

149, mid. .

. 168

12 .

. 154
. . 194

239,20 .

. . . 293

Mart.

152,9 . .

. 219

14 .

242, 22 .

. . . 284

I, 11,2 .

. 164

153,15 . .

. 285

78,18

. . 243

244,24 .
245, 26 .

. . . 185

9 .

. 181

155,8 . .

, 258

26 .

. . 2.89

. . .309

12,21 .

. 231

157, ult.. .

. 288

74,8 .

. . 158

247, 2, 22

. . . 185

ult.

. 250

159, mid. 222, 287

75,5 ,

. . 222

218, 3 .

... 185

16,6 .

. 222

inf. . .

. 283

76, T. 5

. . 286

INDEX OF PASSAGES.

331

Moes.

11, 78,vv. 39,45.312
80,vv. 75,77.260
w. 79,81.311
, v. 83 .311
4, v. 115 .

v.117.181,254
J6, v. 152 . 37
88, v. 1

V. 197 . 1
90,v.221.259,3H
V. 221 . 259
V 233 . 206
V. 237 . 181
92, v. 239
v. 242
94, v. 296
96, v. 328
, v. 334
V. 336
v. 358

332

INDEX OS PASSAGES.

Ov.

Ov.

Ov. ■

Ov.

173, 14 . .

. 308

185, 3 . .

. 198

207, 3,6 .

. 172

288, 7 . . .

17 . .

. 279

12 . . 1

61,260

21 . .

. 166

290, 8,12

18 . .

. 289

18 . .

. 315

25*ff. .

. 176

292, 25 .

20 . . 2

74,296

19 . .

. 309

26 . .

. 275

294, 6 .

22 . .

. 219

25 . .

. 296

208, 19 . .

. 179

16 .

173,11 . .

. 251

188, 1 . .

. 189

21 . .

. 213

295, 15 .

18 . . 1

72,261

21 . .

. 209

24 . .

. 171

20 .

24 . .

. 261

26 . .

. 210

210, 4 . .

. 239

296, 2 .

25 . .

. 802

187,10 . .

. 153

10 . .

. 178

10 .

26 . .

. 201

16 . .

, 263

ult. . .

. 173

17 .

27 . .

. 196

17 . .

. 178

211, 2 . .

. 230

S99, 9-1

174, 1 . .

. 257

188,20 . .

. 311

212, 4 . .

. 239

300, 6 .

8 . .

. 261

189,14 . .

. 236

9 . .

. 197

12 .

11 . .

. 257

22 . .

. 304

14 . .

. 155

303, 13 .

14 . . 2

05, 265

ult. . .

, 230

213, 4 . .

. 178

304, 13 .

ult. . .

. 207

190, 1 . .

. 231

9 . .

. 270

306, 8 .

176, 3 . .

. 307

2 . .

. 221

11 . .

. 242

16 .

5 . .

. 279

4 . .

.304

17 . .

. 265

306, 11 .

11 . .

. 276

13 . .

. 163

214, 7 . .

. 230

307,14 .

19 . .

. 232

16 . .

. 166

11 . .

. 309

308, 17 .

22 . .

. 196

24 . .

. 202

12 . .

. 315

ult. .

26 . .

. 280

27 . .

. 293

21 . .

. 173

311,21 .

176, 2 . .

. 166

191, 9 . .

. 161

215,11 . .

.205

24 .

5 . . 1

51,184

13 . .

. 170

216,16 . .

. 163

312, 12 .

6 . .

. 306

20 . .

. 804

ult . . 1

67, 242

318,17 .

14 . .

. 268

192, 7 . .

. 283

217, 4 . .

. 241

24 .

16 . .

. 28S

19 . .

. 264

9 . .

. 205

314,17 .

27 . .

. 253

20 . .

. 214

14 . .

. 249

318,14 .

177, 2 . .

. 240

193,13 . .

. 232

15 . .

. 201

320, 9 .

3 . .

. 250

14 . .

. 176

16 . .

. 306

15 .

4 . .

. 247

17 . .

. 166

18 . .

. 269

828, 7 .

7 . .

. 229

21 . .

. 164

218, 8 . .

. 271

25 .

11 . .

. 254

194,10,11 .

. 176

11 . .

. 289

329, 10 .

22 . .

. 289

26 . .

. 267

19 . .

. 257

360, 7 .

178, 7 . .

. 158

195, 1 . .

. 267

219, 1 . .

. 178

394, 14 .

16 . .

. 202

19 . .

. 243

10 . .

. 278

897,12 .

22 . .

. 257

196, 14 . .

. 310

24 .

. 239

399, 22 .

25 . .

. 160

15 . .

. 278

220, 4 . .

. 244

400, 19 .

179, 2 . .

. 231

197, 6 . .

. 218

10 . .

. 270

408,22 .

6 . .

. 183

26 . .

. 295

19 . . 2

81,278

424, 4 .

8 . .

. 263

198, 1 . .

. 209

paen. .

. 308

Phifox.

. 11 . .

. 164

3 . .

. 291

221, 2 . .

. 168

15 . .

. 296

189, 1 . .

. 296

6 . .

. 153

29, 8 . .

17 . .

. 224

14 . .

. 257

9 . .

, 178

47,16

18 , .

, 279

17 . .

. 302

252, 4 . .

296

54,21

180, 5 . .

. 200

200, 8 . .

. 178

261, 14,16.

. 168

106, 9

9 . .

. 293

18 . .

. 207

266,15 . .

. 171

120, 2

181,22 . .

. 303

14 . .

. 184

271,22 . .

. 286

154, 7

25 . .

. 195

19 . .

. 280

273,11 . .

. 178

264

182, 5 . .

. 180

201, 1 . . 2

01,312

276, 5 . .

. 280

843, 20

10 . .

. 170

2 . .

. 226

277, 2 . .

. 210

366, 1

12 . .

. 315

202,12 . .

. 211

278,15 . .

.210

861, 18

18 . .

. 222

203,10 . .

. 265

26 . .

. 246

866. .

183, 8 . .

. 189

16 . .

. 241

281,26 . .

. 160

867, 6

26 . .

, 289

25 . .

. 184

282, 1 . .

. 159

384, 11

184, 8, 15 .

. . 178

204,20 . .

. . 175

288,11 . .

. 214

478, 23

17 . .

. 285

206,19 . .

. 280

284,16 . .

.284

600, 5

19,20 .

. 286

22 . .

. 816

287,28 . .

. 196

518,13,20

22 . .

. . 268

206,11 . .

. . 172

26 . .

.2-10

519, 12

INDEX OF PASSAGES.

333

Philox.

524, 11 .

531.19 .

543, 26 .

544, 9 .

552. 20 -
670,11 .
573, 19 .
589,24 .

ir.ov.n

. 214
. 283
. 254
. 166
. 207
. 205
. 283
. 283
. . 255

Sim.

274 mid.

275, 3 .
15 .

276, 5

Philox. (Assemam;.

II, 44 288

Ml> 266

Philox-Epist.^Guidi).

1*01.100, 1,2 . . 289
130, 1,4 . ■ 311
28ft. . . -220
29a, 2 mid. . 247

Sim.

288 . . . 207, 241

ult. .... 246

289, 1 .... 174 I

supr. . . .169 j

6 .... 262

9 . . 217,220

mid- . 160, 190

ad inf. . . 216

inf.l$2, 192,268

... 176

... 259

228, 265

. . .250

... 259

. 209, 263

... 236

... 246

... 190

... 259

179,247

7 . .
inf.. .

277, ad inf.

278, ad inf.

279, mid.

280, mid.

281, mid.

282, 10 .
mid.
inf. .

283,11 .
mid,
inf. .

284, mid.

286, 6 .
mid,

. 216
. 189
. 216
. 154
. 243
. 243
. 184
. 244
. 189,275
. 272
. 265
. 296

i?o,:

198
. . 262
. . 306
. . 214
. . 290
. . 167
204, 243
290,mid. 192,208,290

Sim.

325, 8 . . ■

mid. . .

327, mid. . .
inf. . .

328, 4 . . .

7 . . ■

amr. ■

mid. . .

inf. ■

330, 1 . .

inf. ■

331, 3 . .
ad inf.

332, 3 . .

mid. .

I, 3 . .

mid.

mid .
inf..

13
mid.

249,270, 280

in/. 246, 269, 297

paen. . . . 254

2 i .... 230

8 .... 261

9 .... 17»
. 1S5
. 242
. 257
. 232
. 185

291,11 -

292, 1 .

supr.

10 .
mid.

293, mid.
inf. .

294, 4 .

295, 2 .

11 .

296, mid.
300, 2 .

mid.
inf. .
301, 4 .
5 .
11 .
mitl.
inf..

303, mid.

304, mid.
306,24 .

. 190
. 230
. 213
. 288
. 254
. 275
. 274

. 237
. 272
. 188
. 167
. 267
. 276
. 271

11 . •
13 . .

ad inf.
inf. . .

ult. . .

12
14

... 242

... 170

mid. . 253, 308

273, inf.230, 248,276

874, 1 .... 230

13 .... 179

308, 1 . .

309, mid. .

311, mid. .

312, 1 . .
mid. .
ad inf.

313,12 . .
inf. .

315, inf. .

316, ult. .

317, mid. .
inf. .

321, mid. .
322,12 . .
323, 2 . ■

. 153,187
. . 204
. . . 208
. . 235
. . . 165
. . . 200
. . . 240
. . . 281
. . . 180
. . . 180
... 246
. 174

. . 200
. . 236
. . 205

167,272
. . 178

172,213
. . 252
. . 240

334, 4
338,13 .
337, 9 .
340, mid,
342, mid.
344 . .

12 .
346, mid.

inf.

348, mid.

349, inf.
351, 12 .
353,11 .

354, inf.

355, 3 .

356, 1 .

367, mid.

358, 1 .
359,10 .

inf.
360, inf.
363, mid.

inf.
365, mid.
386, mid. .

25 . .

368, mid. .

inf. .

369, 8 .

370, 4 .
mid.

371, inf.

372, inf.

373, mid.

374, 7 .

376, sg. .

377, 8 .
379,12 .
381, mid .

. 214
. 282
. 215
. 310
. 313
. 286
. 283
. 180
. 178
. ^03
. 180
. 237
. 179
ab inf. . 231
197 j

Sim.

1,13

. 252

. 288

. 297
. 257
. 213

mid.

' ult.

385, mid.

388,14 .

mid.

389, inf. ... 297

390, 8 .... 13S

391, inf. 189,299,304

392, mid. . 257,289
393,12

mid.

inf.
396, mid.
397,12 .

Spic.

. . 232 I
. 180,257 )
. .21+|
. . 154
. . 173 I
. . . 166 .
. 220, 272
. . . 154 |
. . . 302 |
. . . 192 :
. . . 272 :
. . . 197
. . .166
. . . 166
. 174,253
. . . 289
. 197
... 301
. . .170
... 215
. 158,289
. 243, 275
. 282
. 294
. 183

240, 294

7

. . 282

11

. . 194

13

. . 200

14

. . 188

16

. 271
. 298

. . 151

. . 301

. . 308

184,281

. . 217

. 175,301

. . . 235

, 265,316

. 169,208

. . . 184

. . .212
... 236
. 204, 310

. . . 173

. . . 278

. . . 300

. . .312

. 151,294

. . . 183

. . .182

. . . 242

. . . 154

. . . 270

. . . 242

. . . 312
. . . 312
. . . 184

. . 241

. . 281

. . 295

. . 188

. . 183

183,309

. . 226

. . .225

, . . 201

. 156,295

334

INDEX OF PASSAGES.

Spic.

5, 19 . . . 102,290
24 281

6, 4 315

6 170

10 225

11 179

14 294

21 208

7, 1 162

14 211

15,16 ... 221

20 202

26 167

8, 1 177

14 279

9, 5 193

9 . 169, 177,241

14 . . . 186,297

22 183

23 . . . 249, 263
24, 25 . . . 284
26 . . . . . 294

10, 2, 18 . . . 265

19 . . . 194,265

20 . . . 194, 287

22 249

lilt. .... 184

11, 7 265

8 195

14 288

20 256

12, 2 . . . 184
3 . . . .188
4, 6 . . . .166
7 266

10 297

13 ... . 278

SpiC.

256

19 . .

. 18'

201

264

204

4 , .

242

6 . .

, 192

215

8 . .

. 21 i

304

218
208

19 . .

189

26

231

242

254

184

272

18 . .

20,24

283

25 . .

231

26 . .

233

281

189
222
266

20 . .

28. .

190

25 . .

193

301
231
219
184

23 . .

17, 4 . .

267

17 . .

. L9E

240

19 . .

253

20. ,

237

23. .

231

18, 4 . .

242

159
253

1C . .

152

Spic.

18, 18

24

206

285

S12

315

164

184

151

309

282

. . . 187,292

278

178

14, 18 . . 292

283

, . . 171,314

282

235

Spic.

21, 7 212

22, 5 189

26, 2, 3 .
27,24 . .
40, 8 . .

20 . .
41,15 . .
43 sqq. .

. 192
. 171
. 119
. 154

. 226
, 192
. 241
. 292
. 225
. 157

ZDMB.

XXV, S35v. 190 296

337 v. 297 284

339T.348 198

V. S61 174

340 V. 403 284

342, 453 189

XXVII, 571 T. 103 273

V. 109 274

573 v. 267 (Oyrillona) 165

578 v. 81 sq. (Oyrillona) 172

598 vv. 274, 276 274

XXIX, 109 vv. 26, 27 232

v. 30(Jac. Bar.) .166

116paen 243

lilt. 209

117 V. 285 210,271

XXXI, 337 nit. (Jao. Bar) ISO

XXXVI, tab. 1, No. 8 93,193

C. OTHER AUTHORS, WORKS and DOCUMENTS,

OCCASIONALLY REFERliED TO.

Abbeloos

68,11 194

97, 1 298

Acta S. Maris

45, 2 . . 272

Aots of Thomas (Hnvkitt)

10, 11 146

Apoo. Baruch ,

83 (fol. 861 c. tilt.) 26.4

Arist. Hermeneutlca (G-. Hoffmann)
26,6—27,7 285

As8emanl

1, 810 Mnr". (Jao. Sar.) . . . • . . . 194
857 (Simeon of Beth Arsli am) . .258
449 (Isaao Ninivita) 181

II, 44 (Phlloxenns) J 288

44b (PhUoxemis) 266

Bardesanes' Hymns

Gen. Keference 80

INDEX OF PASSAGES.

335

Barh. Gr.

215, ult (Quotation) .

Clemens

9,18
66, 25 .
136,18
140, 13, 14
146, 32

. 256
. 1Q4
. 143
. 143

Codex of 44

Kef. tu certain Example:

Codex D of Alexis
Var. to 18,17 . . .

Documents (circa 200 A. D.)
Gen. Reference

Ebedjesu

Edessan Chronicle (Halliev)
Gen. Kef. to Doc. of 201 A. D.

145, paen

146, 5

If.

. 272
. 234
. 253
. 237
. 261

Euseb.-Theoph.
11,84, ad My 1 '.

Euseb. (Pseud.) de Stella
LIS

Geoponici

65,2 . .

22 . .

Gregor. Naz. Carm.

11,23,21

Guria et Shamona
24,8,11

Ined. (Sachau)

2,14 ... .

90, tilt . . .

Jesussabran (Oliabot)

809, w#.

554,11

568, 5

. 185
. 247

Kalilag and Damnag (Biekell)

52, 16

44 inf.

. 237
. 273

Lagarde, Anal.

. 132
. 187

Lagarde, Meliq. Jur. Syr.

21, 23, 24 244

57, 5 311

144, 4 245

Martyrer (Hofftnann)

107,964 285

108, !>73 219

Nova Coll.

X, 341 fl 155

Offic. Sanct. Mar on.
fHyemal.) 366 b . . .
(Aestiv.) 74 b ult. .

Qardagh (Feige)

58,2 194

87, 7 293

Regulae Monasticae (Ohabot)

in 'Accad. dei Iiincei, Rend. 1898*

41,15 244

Sette Dormienti (Gnidi)

22 v. 142

27 v. 158 .

28 v. 168 .

. 216
. 213
. 213
. 216

Simeon of Beth Arsham (Gkiiili)

1, 3 180

6, bab inf. 192

7,13 180

Kalilag and Damnag (Hickeli)

10,16

10723

. 255
. 255

. 18S

. 294

Simeon of Beth Arsham (AsRemam)

I. 357 253

336

INDEX OF PASSAGES.

Statuti della Scuola di Nislbi (Guidi) Vita St. Antonii (Sclmlthess)

lO.frft. 194 ll.jMCTl 13B

13, 8

IB, 10

25, 9

. 214
. 165
. 205

Stephen bar Sudaill (Erothingham)

18, 1 265

Synodes (chahot)

28,17,22 236

Testam. Ephr 19'

Testam. Jesu Christ!

104,12 ■

Wright's Catalogue
28 a, inf. (Sac. Ed.) ,

664 b, 18

689 a, 3 (Ephr.) . .
14 (Ephr.) .

. 255

Zingerle's Chrest.

257, 8 (Ephr.) 245

278, 6s?.(Epbl\) < 67

278, 5 (Ephr.) "4

327, V. 117 (Ephr,) 184

374 (Jao. Bar.) lsl

376 (Jao. Sar.) 281

411, v. 46 (Jao. Sar.) 197

Printed by "W. Drugulin, Leipzig.